Fundamentals of Distance

Protection

GE Multilin
Outline
• Transmission line introduction
• What is distance protection?
• Non-pilot and pilot schemes
• Redundancy considerations
• Security for dual-breaker terminals
• Out-of-step relaying
• Single-pole tripping
• Series-compensated lines

2/
GE /
November 23, 2018
Transmission Lines
A Vital Part of the Power System:
• Provide path to transfer power between generation and load
• Operate at voltage levels from 69kV to 765kV
• Deregulated markets, economic, environmental requirements
have pushed utilities to operate transmission lines close to their
limits.

3/
GE /
November 23, 2018
Transmission Lines

Classification of line length depends on:

 Source-to-line Impedance Ratio (SIR),
and
 Nominal voltage
Length considerations:
 Short Lines: SIR > 4
 Medium Lines: 0.5 < SIR < 4
 Long Lines: SIR < 0.5
4/
GE /
November 23, 2018
Typical Protection Schemes
Short Lines

• Current differential
• Phase comparison
• Permissive Overreach Transfer Trip (POTT)
• Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB)

5/
GE /
November 23, 2018
Typical Protection Schemes
Medium Lines

• Phase comparison
• Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB)
• Permissive Underreach Transfer Trip (PUTT)
• Permissive Overreach Transfer Trip (POTT)
• Unblocking
• Step Distance
• Step or coordinated overcurrent
• Inverse time overcurrent
• Current Differential
6/
GE /
November 23, 2018
Typical Protection Schemes
Long Lines

• Phase comparison
• Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB)
• Permissive Underreach Transfer Trip (PUTT)
• Permissive Overreach Transfer Trip (POTT)
• Unblocking
• Step Distance
• Step or coordinated overcurrent
• Current Differential
7/
GE /
November 23, 2018
What is distance protection?

Intended
REACH point

F1

Z I*Z
V=I*ZF
I*Z - V

For internal faults:

RELAY (V,I) > IZ – V and V approximately
in phase (mho)
> IZ – V and IZ approximately
in phase (reactance) 8/
GE /
November 23, 2018
What is distance protection?
F2
Intended
REACH point

Z I*Z
V=I*ZF
I*Z - V

For external faults:

RELAY (V,I) > IZ – V and V approximately
out of phase (mho)
> IZ – V and IZ approximately
out of phase (reactance) 9/
GE /
November 23, 2018
What is distance protection?

Intended
REACH point

RELAY

10 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Source Impedance Ratio,
Accuracy & Speed
Relay
Lin
System e

f LOC [ PU ]
Voltage at the relay: VR  VN
f LOC [ PU ]  SIR

Consider SIR = 0.1

Fault location Voltage Voltage change
(%) (%)
75% 88.24 2.76
90% 90.00 0.91
100% 90.91 N/A
110% 91.67 0.76
11 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Source Impedance Ratio,
Accuracy & Speed
Relay
System
Lin
e f LOC [ PU ]
Voltage at the relay: VR  VN
f LOC [ PU ]  SIR

Consider SIR = 30
Fault location Voltage Voltage change
(%) (%)
75% 2.4390 0.7868
90% 2.9126 0.3132
100% 3.2258 N/A
110% 3.5370 0.3112
12 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Challenges in relay design
> Transients: 30

– High frequency 20
– DC offset in currents steady-state
output

– CVT transients in
10

voltage, V
voltages 0
High Voltage Line

C1 6 -10
3 5 CVT output
1
-20
C2 Secondary Voltage
2 -30
0 1 2 3 4
power cycles
Output

13 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Challenges in relay design
> Transients: 60
– High frequency
40
– DC offset in currents steady-state
output
– CVT transients in 20

voltage, V
voltages 0
High Voltage Line

C1 6 -20
CVT
3 5 output
1
-40
C2 Secondary Voltage
2 -60
0 1 2 3 4
power cycles
Output

14 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Challenges in relay design
100 100
vA vB vC
80

60

Reactance comparator [V]

40

20
50
Voltage [V]

-20 SPOL
Sorry… Future (unknown)
-40
0
-60

-80

-100
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
-50
5
iA
4

3
SOP
-100
2 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
Current [A]

power cycles
1

-1
iB, iC > In-phase = internal
-2
fault
-3
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
> Out-of-phase = 15 /
GE /

external fault November 23, 2018

Transient Overreach

• Fault current generally contains dc offset in

addition to ac power frequency component
• Ratio of dc to ac component of current
depends on instant in the cycle at which fault
occurred
• Rate of decay of dc offset depends on
system X/R

16 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Zone 1 and CVT Transients
Capacitive Voltage Transformers (CVTs) create certain
problems for fast distance relays applied to systems with
high Source Impedance Ratios (SIRs):
> CVT-induced transient voltage components may
assume large magnitudes (up to 30-40%) and last for
a comparatively long time (up to about 2 cycles)
> 60Hz voltage for faults at the relay reach point may be
as low as 3% for a SIR of 30
> the signal may be buried under noise

17 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Zone 1 and CVT Transients
CVT transients can cause distance relays to overreach.
Generally, transient overreach may be caused by:
> overestimation of the current (the magnitude of the
current as measured is larger than its actual value,
and consequently, the fault appears closer than it is
actually located),
> underestimation of the voltage (the magnitude of the
voltage as measured is lower than its actual value)
> combination of the above

18 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Distance Element Fundamentals

Z1 End Zone

XL

XC
 15
34
42
44 Actual Fault
Location
10
dynamic mho
zone extended
Reactance [ohm]

Line
30
for high SIRs Impedance
5

18
Trajectory
22 (msec)
0

26

-5
-10 -5 0
Resistance [ohm]
Impedance
5 locus
10 may pass
below the origin of the Z-plane -
this would call for a time delay
20 /
to obtain stability GE /
November 23, 2018
CVT Transient Overreach
Solutions
> apply delay (fixed or adaptable)
> reduce the reach
> adaptive techniques and better filtering
algorithms

21 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
CVT Transients – Adaptive
Solution
> Optimize signal filtering:
– currents - max 3% error due to the dc component
– voltages - max 0.6% error due to CVT transients
> Adaptive double-reach approach
– filtering alone ensures maximum transient
overreach at the level of 1% (for SIRs up to 5) and
20% (for SIRs up to 30)
– to reduce the transient overreach even further an
adaptive double-reach zone 1 has been
implemented

22 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
CVT Transients – Adaptive
Solution
The outer zone 1:
> is fixed at the actual reach
> applies certain security delay to cope with CVT transients

X
The inner zone 1:
> has its reach dynamically Delayed
Trip
controlled by the voltage
magnitude
> is instantaneous

Instantaneous
Trip

23 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Desirable Distance Relay
Attributes
Filters:
> Prefiltering of currents to remove dc decaying transients
– Limit maximum transient overshoot (below 2%)
> Prefiltering of voltages to remove low frequency transients
caused by CVTs
– Limit transient overreach to less than 5% for an SIR of
30
> Accurate and fast frequency tracking algorithm
> Adaptive reach control for faults at reach points

24 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Distance Relay Operating Times

25 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Distance Relay Operating Times

35ms
25ms 30ms
20ms

15ms

26 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Distance Relay Operating Times

SLG faults LL faults

3P faults

27 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
 Actual maximum reach curves
100 Relay 4
90

80 Relay 3
70
Maximum Rach [%]

60

50

40
Relay 2
30

20
Relay 1
10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
SIR

28 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Maximum Torque Angle

• Angle at which mho element has maximum

reach
• Characteristics with smaller MTA will
accommodate larger amount of arc resistance

29 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
 Mho Characteristics
Traditional

Directional angle
“slammed”

Directional
angle lowered
and “slammed”

Both MHO and

directional angles
“slammed” (lens)

30 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Load Swings

+XL

+ = LOOKING INTO LINE

normally considered
forward

Load
Trajectory
Operate No Operate area
area
Typical load characteristic
impedance

+R
31 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Load Swings

“Lenticular”
Characteristic

Load swing

32 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Load Encroachment Characteristic

The load encroachment element responds to positive

sequence voltage and current and can be used to
block phase distance and phase overcurrent 33 /
elements. GE /
November 23, 2018
Blinders

• Blinders limit the operation of distance relays

(quad or mho) to a narrow region that parallels
and encompasses the protected line
• Applied to long transmission lines, where
mho settings are large enough to pick up on
maximum load or minor system swings

34 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Quadrilateral Characteristics

35 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Quadrilateral Characteristics

Ground Resistance
(Conductor falls on ground)

R Resultant impedance outside of

the mho operating region

36 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Distance Characteristics -
Summary
Mho Lenticular Quadrilatera
JX l

R
Standard for phase Used for phase elements Better coverage for
elements with long heavily loaded ground faults due
lines heavily loaded to resistance added
to return path

37 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Distance Element Polarization

The following polarization quantities are commonly

used in distance relays for determining directionality:
• Self-polarized
• Memory voltage
• Positive sequence voltage
• Quadrature voltage
• Leading phase voltage

38 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Memory Polarization
> Positive-sequence memorized voltage is used for
polarizing:
– Mho comparator (dynamic, expanding Mho)
– Negative-sequence directional comparator (Ground
Distance Mho and Quad)
– Zero-sequence directional comparator (Ground
Distance MHO and QUAD)
– Directional comparator (Phase Distance MHO and
QUAD)
> Memory duration is a common distance settings (all zones,
phase and ground, MHO and QUAD)

39 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Memory Polarization
jX Static MHO characteristic (memory not established or
expired)
ZL
Dynamic MHO characteristic for a reverse fault

Dynamic MHO characteristic for a forward fau

Impedance During Close-up Faults

ZS

40 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Memory Polarization
jX Static MHO characteristic (memory not established or
expired)
ZL

Dynamic MHO characteristic for a forward fault

RL

ZS

Memory Polarization…Improved Resistive 41 /

GE /

Coverage November 23, 2018

Choice of Polarization

• In order to provide flexibility modern distance

relays offer a choice with respect to
polarization of ground overcurrent direction
functions:
– Voltage polarization
– Current polarization
– Dual polarization

42 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Ground Directional Elements
> Pilot-aided schemes using ground mho distance relays
have inherently limited fault resistance coverage
> Ground directional over current protection using either
negative or zero sequence can be a useful supplement to
give more coverage for high resistance faults
> Directional discrimination based on the ground quantities is
fast:
– Accurate angular relations between the zero and
negative sequence quantities establish very quickly
because:
 During faults zero and negative-sequence
currents and voltages build up from very low
values (practically from zero)
 The pre-fault values do not bias the developing 43 /
fault components in any direction GE /
November 23, 2018
Distance Schemes

Pilot Aided Non-Pilot Aided

Schemes Schemes
(Step Distance)

Communication No Communication
between Distance between Distance
relays Relays

44 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Step Distance Schemes
• Zone 1:
– Trips with no intentional time delay
– Underreaches to avoid unnecessary operation for faults
beyond remote terminal
– Typical reach setting range 80-90% of ZL
• Zone 2:
– Set to protect remainder of line
– Overreaches into adjacent line/equipment
– Minimum reach setting 120% of ZL
– Typically time delayed by 15-30 cycles
• Zone 3:
– Remote backup for relay/station failures at remote
terminal
– Reaches beyond Z2, load encroachment a consideration 45 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Step Distance Schemes
Local
Z1

Z1
Remote

46 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Step Distance Schemes
Local
Z1 End
Zone

End Z1
Zone Remote

47 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Step Distance Schemes
Local
Z1
Breaker
Tripped

Breaker
Closed Z1
Remote

48 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Step Distance Schemes
Local
Z2 (time delayed)

Z1

Z1

Z2 (time delayed)
49 /
Remote GE /
November 23, 2018
Step Distance Schemes
Z3 (remote backup) …
Z2 (time delayed)

Z1

50 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Step Distance Protection

51 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Distance Relay Coordination
Over Lap
Local Relay – Z2

Remote Relay – Z4

Local Relay Remote Relay

Zone 2 PKP Zone 4 PKP

52 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Need For Pilot Aided Schemes

Local Remote Relay

Relay

Communication
Channel

53 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Pilot Communications Channels
• Distance-based pilot schemes traditionally utilize
simple on/off communications between relays, but
can also utilize peer-to-peer communications and
GOOSE messaging over digital channels
• Typical communications media include:
– Pilot-wire (50Hz, 60Hz, AT)
– Power line carrier
– Microwave
– Radio
– Optic fiber (directly connected or multiplexed
channels)
54 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Distance-based Pilot Protection

55 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Pilot-Aided Distance-Based Schemes

 DUTT – Direct Under-reaching Transfer Trip

 PUTT – Permissive Under-reaching Transfer
Trip
 POTT – Permissive Over-reaching Transfer Trip
 Hybrid POTT – Hybrid Permissive Over-
reaching Transfer Trip
 DCB – Directional Comparison Blocking
Scheme
 DCUB – Directional Comparison Unblocking
Scheme
56 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Direct Underreaching Transfer Trip
(DUTT)
• Requires only underreaching (RU) functions which
overlap in reach (Zone 1).
•Applied with FSK channel
– GUARD frequency transmitted during normal
conditions
– TRIP frequency when one RU function operates
• Scheme does not provide tripping for faults beyond
RU reach if remote breaker is open or channel is
inoperative.
• Dual pilot channels improve security
57 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
DUTT Scheme

Zone 1

Bus Bus
Line

Zone 1

58 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Permissive Underreaching
Transfer Trip (PUTT)
• Requires both under (RU) and overreaching
(RO) functions
• Identical to DUTT, with pilot tripping signal
supervised by RO (Zone 2)

59 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
PUTT Scheme
Zone 2

Zone 1
To protect end of
line
Bus Bus
Line

Zone 1

Zone 2

Rx PKP

& Local Trip

Zone 2
OR
Zone 1
60 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Permissive Overreaching Transfer
Trip (POTT)
• Requires overreaching (RO) functions (Zone
2).
• Applied with FSK channel:
– GUARD frequency sent in stand-by
– TRIP frequency when one RO function
operates
• No trip for external faults if pilot channel is
inoperative
• Time-delayed tripping can be provided
61 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
POTT Scheme
Zone 2

Zone 1

Bus Bus
Line

Zone 1

Zone 2

(Z1) Tx

Zone 1

Trip
(Z1) Rx OR Line
AND Breakers

Zone 2 t
o
62 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
POTT Scheme
POTT – Permissive Over-reaching Transfer
Trip
End
Zone

63 /
Communication GE /
November 23, 2018
Channel
POTT Scheme
Local Relay
FWD IGND Remote
Relay FWD
Local Relay – Z2 IGND

Remote Relay – Z2

Communicatio
TRIP n Channel

POTT RX POTT TX

Local Relay ZONE 2 PKP Remote Relay

ZONE 2 PKP
OR
OR
Ground Dir OC Fwd Ground Dir OC Fwd 64 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
POTT Scheme

Communications
POTT RX 1 POTT TX 1 A to G

Channel(s)
POTT RX 2 POTT TX 2 B to G

POTT RX 3 POTT TX 3 C to G

POTT RX 4 POTT TX 4 Multi Phase

Local Relay Remote Relay

65 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
POTT Scheme
Current reversal example
TRIP

Local Relay Remote Relay

Timer
Start Communication
Timer
Expire Channel

GND
GNDDIR
DIROC
OCFWD
REV POTT RX POTT TX ZONE
GND 2 OC
DIR ORREV
GND DIR OC FWD
66 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
POTT Scheme
Echo example
Remote FWD
IGND
Open

Remote – Z2

OPEN Communication
Channel
TRIP

POTT RX POTT TX

Local Relay POTT TX POTT RX Remote Relay

Communication
Channel 67 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Hybrid POTT

• Intended for three-terminal lines and weak

infeed conditions
• Echo feature adds security during weak
infeed conditions
• Reverse-looking distance and oc elements
used to identify external faults

68 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Hybrid POTT
Zone 2

Zone 1
Remote Local
Weak
Bus Bus system
Line

Zone 1 Zone 4

Zone 2

69 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Directional Comparison Blocking
(DCB)
• Requires overreaching (RO) tripping and blocking
(B) functions
• ON/OFF pilot channel typically used (i.e., PLC)
– Transmitter is keyed to ON state when blocking
function(s) operate
– Receipt of signal from remote end blocks
tripping relays
• Tripping function set with Zone 2 reach or greater
• Blocking functions include Zone 3 reverse and low-
set ground overcurrent elements
70 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
DCB Scheme
Zone 2

Zone 1
Remote Local

Bus Bus
Line

Zone 1

Zone 2

71 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Directional Comparison Blocking
(DCB)

End Zone

72 /
Communication Channel GE /
November 23, 2018
Directional Comparison Blocking
(DCB)
Internal Faults Local Relay – Z2

FWD IGND

TRIP
TRIP Timer
Start
Expired
Zone 2 PKP
NO Dir Block RX
OR
Local Relay GND DIR OC Fwd Remote Relay
73 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Directional Comparison Blocking
(DCB)
External Faults Local Relay – Z2

FWD IGND
Remote Relay – Z4

TRIP Timer
REV IGND
Start No TRIP
Dir Block RX DIR BLOCK TX
Local Relay Remote Relay
Zone 2 PKP Communication Zone 4 PKP
Channel
OR OR

GND DIR OC Fwd GND DIR OC Rev 74 /

GE /
November 23, 2018
Directional Comparison
Unblocking (DCUB)
• Applied to Permissive Overreaching (POR)
schemes to overcome the possibility of carrier signal
attenuation or loss as a result of the fault
• Unblocking provided in the receiver when signal is
lost:
– If signal is lost due to fault, at least one
permissive RO functions will be picked up
– Unblocking logic produces short-duration TRIP
signal (150-300 ms). If RO function not picked
up, channel lockout occurs until GUARD signal
returns
75 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
DCUB Scheme

Forward

Bus Bus
Line

Forward

Trip
(Un-Block) Tx1 Line
Breakers

(Block) Tx2

Forward

(Block) Rx2 AND

AND
AND t
o
AND
(Un-Block) Rx1

76 /
Lockout GE /
November 23, 2018
Directional Comparison Unblocking
(DCUB)

End Zone

77 /
Communication Channel GE /
November 23, 2018
 Directional Comparison Unblocking
(DCUB)
Normal conditions

Load Current

FSK Carrier FSK Carrier

GUARD1 RX GUARD1 TX
Local Relay Remote Relay
NO Loss of Guard GUARD2 TX GUARD2 RX NO Loss of Guard
NO Permission NO Permission
Communication
Channel 78 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
 Directional Comparison Unblocking
(DCUB)
Normal conditions, channel failure

Load Current

Loss of Channel
FSK Carrier FSK Carrier

GUARD1
NO RX RX GUARD1 TX
Local Relay Remote Relay
Loss of Guard GUARD2 TX GUARD2
NO RX RX Loss of Guard
Block Timer Started
Expired Block Timer Expired
Started
Communication
Block DCUB Channel Block DCUB 79 /
until Guard OK until Guard OKGE /
November 23, 2018
Directional Comparison Unblocking
(DCUB)
Internal fault, healthy channel
Local Relay – Z2

Remote Relay – Z2

TRIP TRIP Z1
FSK Carrier FSK Carrier

GUARD1
TRIP1 RXRX GUARD1
TRIP1 TX
TX
Local Relay Remote Relay
Zone 2 PKP ZONE 2 PKP
GUARD2
TRIP2 TX TX GUARD2
TRIP2 RXRX

Loss of Guard
Communication 80 /
Permission GE /
Channel November 23, 2018
 Directional Comparison Unblocking
(DCUB)
Internal fault, channel failure
Local Relay – Z2

Remote Relay – Z2
Loss of Channel
TRIP TRIP Z1
FSK Carrier FSK Carrier

GUARD1
NO RX RX GUARD1
TRIP1 TX
TX
Local Relay Remote Relay
Zone 2 PKP ZONE 2 PKP
GUARD2
TRIP2 TX TX GUARD2
NO RX RX
Loss of Guard Loss of Guard
Block Timer Started Communication 81 /
Duration Timer Started
Expired Channel GE /
November 23, 2018
Redundancy Considerations
• Redundant protection systems increase dependability of the
system:
 Multiple sets of protection using same protection principle
and multiple pilot channels overcome individual element
failure, or
 Multiple sets of protection using different protection
principles and multiple channels protects against failure of
one of the protection methods.
• Security can be improved using “voting” schemes (i.e., 2-out-
of-3), potentially at expense of dependability.
• Redundancy of instrument transformers, battery systems, trip
coil circuits, etc. also need to be considered.

82 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
 Redundant Communications
End Zone

AND Channels: OR Channels:

POTT Less Reliable POTT More Reliable
Communication Channel 1
DCB Less Secure DCB More Secure
Communication Channel 2
More Channel Security More Channel Dependability

Loss of Channel 2 83 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Redundant Pilot Schemes

84 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Pilot Relay Desirable Attributes
• Integrated functions:
weak infeed
echo
line pick-up (SOTF)
• Basic protection elements used to key the
communication:
distance elements
fast and sensitive ground (zero and negative
sequence) directional IOCs with current,
voltage, and/or dual polarization

85 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Pilot Relay Desirable Attributes
Pre-programmed distance-based pilot schemes:
 Direct Under-reaching Transfer Trip (DUTT)
 Permissive Under-reaching Transfer Trip (PUTT)
 Permissive Overreaching Transfer Trip (POTT)
 Hybrid Permissive Overreaching Transfer Trip (HYB
POTT)
 Blocking scheme (DCB)
 Unblocking scheme (DCUB)

86 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Security for dual-breaker terminals
• Breaker-and-a-half and ring bus terminals are
common designs for transmission lines.
• Standard practice has been to:
– sum currents from each circuit breaker
externally by paralleling the CTs
– use external sum as the line current for
protective relays
• For some close-in external fault events, poor CT
performance may lead to improper operation of line
relays.

87 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Security for dual-breaker terminals

Accurate CTs preserve the

reverse current direction
under weak remote infeed

88 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Security for dual-breaker terminals

Saturation of CT1 may

invert the line current as
measured from externally
summated CTs

89 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Security for dual-breaker terminals
• Direct measurement of currents
from both circuit breakers allows
the use of supervisory logic to
prevent distance and directional
overcurrent elements from
operating incorrectly due to CT
errors during reverse faults.
• Additional benefits of direct
measurement of currents:
 independent BF protection
for each circuit breaker
 independent autoreclosing
for each breaker
90 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Security for dual-breaker terminals
Supervisory logic should:
– not affect speed or sensitivity of protection elements
– correctly allow tripping during evolving external-to-
internal fault conditions
– determine direction of current flow through each
breaker independently:
• Both currents in FWD direction  internal fault
• One current FWD, one current REV  external fault
– allow tripping during all forward/internal faults
– block tripping during all reverse/external faults
– initially block tripping during evolving external-to-
internal faults until second fault appears in forward
direction. Block is then lifted to permit tripping.
91 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Single-pole Tripping

• Distance relay must correctly identify a SLG

fault and trip only the circuit breaker pole for
the faulted phase.
• Autoreclosing and breaker failure functions
must be initiated correctly on the fault event
• Security must be maintained on the healthy
phases during the open pole condition and any
reclosing attempt.
92 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Out-of-Step Condition

• For certain operating conditions, a severe

system disturbance can cause system
instability and result in loss of synchronism
between different generating units on an
interconnected system.

93 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Out-of-Step Relaying
Out-of-step blocking relays
– Operate in conjunction with mho tripping relays
to prevent a terminal from tripping during severe
system swings & out-of-step conditions.
– Prevent system from separating in an
indiscriminate manner.
Out-of-step tripping relays
– Operate independently of other devices to
detect out-of-step condition during the first pole
slip.
– Initiate tripping of breakers that separate system
in order to balance load with available
generation on any isolated part of the system. 94 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Out-of-Step Tripping The locus must stay
When the inner for some time
characteristic is between the outer
entered the element and middle
is ready to trip characteristics

Must move and stay

between the middle
and inner
95 /
characteristics GE /
November 23, 2018
Power Swing Blocking
Applications:
> Establish a blocking signal for stable power swings (Power
Swing Blocking)
> Establish a tripping signal for unstable power swings (Out-
of-Step Tripping)
Responds to:
> Positive-sequence voltage and current

96 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Series-compensated lines
Benefits of series capacitors:
• Reduction of overall XL of long lines
• Improvement of stability margins
• Ability to adjust line load levels
• Loss reduction
• Reduction of voltage drop during severe disturbances
• Normally economical for line lengths > 200 miles

Xs SC XL Infinte
E
Bus

97 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Series-compensated lines
SCs create unfavorable conditions for protective relays and
fault locators:
• Overreaching of distance elements
• Failure of distance element to pick up on low-current faults
• Phase selection problems in single-pole tripping
applications
• Large fault location errors

Xs SC XL Infinte
E
Bus

98 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Series-compensated lines
Series Capacitor with MOV

99 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Series-compensated lines

100 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Series-compensated lines
Dynamic Reach Control

101 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Series-compensated lines
Dynamic Reach Control for External Faults

102 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Series-compensated lines
Dynamic Reach Control for External Faults

103 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Series-compensated lines
Dynamic Reach Control for Internal Faults

104 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Distance Protection Looking
Through a Transformer
• Phase distance elements can be set to see beyond
any 3-phase power transformer
• CTs & VTs may be located independently on
different sides of the transformer
• Given distance zone is defined by VT location (not
CTs)
• Reach setting is in sec, and must take into
account location & ratios of VTs, CTs and voltage
ratio of the involved power transformer
105 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Transformer Group Compensation

Depending on location of VTs and CTs, distance relays need to

compensate for the phase shift and magnitude change caused by the
power transformer 106 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Setting Rules
• Transformer positive sequence impedance must be
included in reach setting only if transformer lies
between VTs and intended reach point
• Currents require compensation only if transformer
located between CTs and intended reach point
• Voltages require compensation only if transformer
located between VTs and intended reach point
• Compensation set based on transformer connection
& vector group as seen from CTs/VTs toward reach
point

107 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Distance Relay Desirable
Attributes
> Multiple reversible distance zones
> Individual per-zone, per-element characteristic:
– Dynamic voltage memory polarization
– Various characteristics, including mho, quad,
lenticular
> Individual per-zone, per-element current supervision
(FD)
> Multi-input phase comparator:
– additional ground directional supervision
– dynamic reactance supervision
> Transient overreach filtering/control
> Phase shift & magnitude compensation for distance
applications with power transformers
108 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Distance Relay Desirable
Attributes
> For improved flexibility, it is desirable to have the following
parameters settable on a per zone basis:
– Zero-sequence compensation
– Mutual zero-sequence compensation
– Maximum torque angle
– Blinders
– Directional angle
– Comparator limit angles (for lenticular characteristic)
– Overcurrent supervision

109 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
Distance Relay Desirable
Attributes
> Additional functions
– Overcurrent elements (phase, neutral, ground,
directional, negative sequence, etc.)
– Breaker failure
– Automatic reclosing (single & three-pole)
– Sync check
– Under/over voltage elements
> Special functions
– Power swing detection
– Load encroachment
– Pilot schemes

110 /
GE /
November 23, 2018
 111 /
GE /
November 23, 2018