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0-13-191835-4

Signal Encoding Techniques

Chapter 6
Stallings, Wireless Communications & Networks, Second Edition, © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-191835-4

Reasons for Choosing

Encoding Techniques
 Digital data, digital signal
 Equipment less complex and expensive
than digital-to-analog modulation
equipment
 Analog data, digital signal
 Permits use of modern digital transmission
and switching equipment
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Reasons for Choosing

Encoding Techniques
 Digital data, analog signal
 Some transmission media will only
propagate analog signals
 E.g., optical fiber and unguided media
 Analog data, analog signal
 Analog data in electrical form can be
transmitted easily and cheaply
 Done with voice transmission over voice-
grade lines
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Signal Encoding Criteria

 What determines how successful a receiver
will be in interpreting an incoming signal?
 Signal-to-noise ratio
 Data rate
 Bandwidth
 An increase in data rate increases bit error
rate
 An increase in SNR decreases bit error rate
 An increase in bandwidth allows an increase
in data rate
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Factors Used to Compare

Encoding Schemes
 Signal spectrum
 With lack of high-frequency components, less
bandwidth required
 With no dc component, ac coupling via
transformer possible
 Transfer function of a channel is worse near band
edges
 Clocking
 Ease of determining beginning and end of each bit
position
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Factors Used to Compare

Encoding Schemes
 Signal interference and noise immunity
 Performance in the presence of noise
 Cost and complexity
 The higher the signal rate to achieve a given data
rate, the greater the cost
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Basic Encoding Techniques

 Digital data to analog signal
 Amplitude-shift keying (ASK)
 Amplitude difference of carrier frequency
 Frequency-shift keying (FSK)
 Frequency difference near carrier frequency
 Phase-shift keying (PSK)
 Phase of carrier signal shifted
Basic Encoding Techniques
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Amplitude-Shift Keying
 One binary digit represented by presence of
carrier, at constant amplitude
 Other binary digit represented by absence of
carrier
ï A cos(2pf c t )
ì binary 1
s (t ) = í
ï
î 0 binary 0

 where the carrier signal is Acos(2πfct)

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Amplitude-Shift Keying
 Susceptible to sudden gain changes
 Inefficient modulation technique
 On voice-grade lines, used up to 1200
bps
 Used to transmit digital data over
optical fiber
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Binary Frequency-Shift Keying

(BFSK)
 Two binary digits represented by two
different frequencies near the carrier
frequency

ï A cos(2pf1t )
ì binary 1
s (t ) = í
î A cos(2pf 2t )
ï binary 0

 where f1 and f2 are offset from carrier frequency fc by

equal but opposite amounts
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Binary Frequency-Shift Keying

(BFSK)
 Less susceptible to error than ASK
 On voice-grade lines, used up to
1200bps
 Used for high-frequency (3 to 30 MHz)
radio transmission
 Can be used at higher frequencies on
LANs that use coaxial cable
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Multiple Frequency-Shift
Keying (MFSK)
 More than two frequencies are used
 More bandwidth efficient but more
susceptible to error

si (t ) = A cos 2pf i t 1£ i £ M

 f i = f c + (2i – 1 – M)f d
 f c = the carrier frequency
 f d = the difference frequency
 M = number of different signal elements = 2 L
 L = number of bits per signal element
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Multiple Frequency-Shift
Keying (MFSK)
 To match data rate of input bit
stream, each output signal element is
held for:
Ts=LT seconds
 where T is the bit period (data rate = 1/T)
 So, one signal element encodes L bits
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Multiple Frequency-Shift
Keying (MFSK)
 Total bandwidth required
2Mfd
 Minimum frequency separation required
2fd=1/Ts
 Therefore, modulator requires a
bandwidth of
Wd=2L/LT=M/Ts
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Multiple Frequency-Shift
Keying (MFSK)
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Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)

 Two-level PSK (BPSK)
 Uses two phases to represent binary digits

ï A cos(2pf c t )
ì binary 1
s (t ) = í
ï
î A cos (2pf c t + p ) binary 0

ïA cos(2pf c t )
ì binary 1
=í
ï
î- A cos (2p f c t ) binary 0
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Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)

 Differential PSK (DPSK)
 Phase shift with reference to previous bit
 Binary 0 – signal burst of same phase as
previous signal burst
 Binary 1 – signal burst of opposite phase to
previous signal burst
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Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)

 Four-level PSK (QPSK)
 Each element represents more than one bit
æ pö
A cosç 2pf c t + ÷
ì è 4ø
11

ïï æ 3p ö
A cosç 2pf c t + ÷
s (t ) = í
01
è 4 ø
æ 3p ö
A cosç 2pf c t - ÷
ï
00
è 4 ø
ïî æ pö
A cosç 2pf c t - ÷ 10
è 4ø
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Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)

 Multilevel PSK
 Using multiple phase angles with each angle
having more than one amplitude, multiple
signals elements can be achieved
R R
D= =
L log 2 M
 D = modulation rate, baud
 R = data rate, bps
 M = number of different signal elements = 2L
 L = number of bits per signal element
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Performance
 Bandwidth of modulated signal (BT)
 ASK, PSK BT=(1+r)R
 FSK BT=2DF+(1+r)R

 R = bit rate
 0 < r < 1; related to how signal is filtered
 DF = f2-fc=fc-f1
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Performance
 Bandwidth of modulated signal (BT)
æ1+ r ö æ 1+ r ö
 MPSK
BT = ç ÷ R = çç ÷÷ R
è L ø è log 2 M ø
MFSK æ (1 + r )M ö

BT = çç ÷÷ R
è log 2 M ø
 L = number of bits encoded per signal element
 M = number of different signal elements
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Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation
 QAM is a combination of ASK and PSK
 Two different signals sent simultaneously
on the same carrier frequency

s(t )= d1 (t )cos 2pf ct + d 2 (t )sin 2pf ct

Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation
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Reasons for Analog

Modulation
 Modulation of digital signals
 When only analog transmission facilities
are available, digital to analog conversion
required
 Modulation of analog signals
 A higher frequency may be needed for
effective transmission
 Modulation permits frequency division
multiplexing
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Basic Encoding Techniques

 Analog data to analog signal
 Amplitude modulation (AM)
 Angle modulation
 Frequency modulation (FM)
 Phase modulation (PM)
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Amplitude Modulation
 Amplitude Modulation
s(t )= [1+ na x(t )]cos 2pf ct
 cos2fct = carrier
 x(t) = input signal
 na = modulation index
 Ratio of amplitude of input signal to carrier
 a.k.a double sideband transmitted carrier
(DSBTC)
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Spectrum of AM signal
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Amplitude Modulation
 Transmitted power
æ na 2 ö
Pt = Pc çç1 + ÷
÷
è 2 ø
 Pt = total transmitted power in s(t)
 Pc = transmitted power in carrier
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Single Sideband (SSB)

 Variant of AM is single sideband (SSB)
 Sends only one sideband
 Eliminates other sideband and carrier
 Advantages
 Only half the bandwidth is required
 Less power is required
 Disadvantages
 Suppressed carrier can’t be used for
synchronization purposes
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Angle Modulation
 Angle modulation
s(t )= Ac cos[2pf ct + f (t )]

 Phase modulation
 Phase is proportional to modulating
signal
f (t )= n p m(t )

 np = phase modulation index

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Angle Modulation
 Frequency modulation
 Derivative of the phase is proportional to
modulating signal

f ' (t )= n f m(t )
 nf = frequency modulation index
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Angle Modulation
 Compared to AM, FM and PM result in a
signal whose bandwidth:
 is also centered at fc
 but has a magnitude that is much different
 Angle modulation includes cos( (t)) which
produces a wide range of frequencies
 Thus, FM and PM require greater
bandwidth than AM
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Angle Modulation
 Carson’s rule
BT = 2(b + 1)B
where
ì n p Am
ï for PM
b = í DF n f Am
ïî B = 2pB for FM

 The formula for FM becomes

BT = 2DF + 2B
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Basic Encoding Techniques

 Analog data to digital signal
 Pulse code modulation (PCM)
 Delta modulation (DM)
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Analog Data to Digital Signal

 Once analog data have been converted
to digital signals, the digital data:
 can be transmitted using NRZ-L
 can be encoded as a digital signal using a
code other than NRZ-L
 can be converted to an analog signal,
using previously discussed techniques
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Pulse Code Modulation

 Based on the sampling theorem
 Each analog sample is assigned a binary
code
 Analog samples are referred to as pulse
amplitude modulation (PAM) samples
 The digital signal consists of block of n
bits, where each n-bit number is the
amplitude of a PCM pulse
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Example
Pulse Code Modulation
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PCM Block Diagram

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Pulse Code Modulation

 By quantizing the PAM pulse, original signal is
only approximated
 Leads to quantizing noise
 Signal-to-noise ratio for quantizing noise

SNR dB = 20 log 2n + 1.76 dB = 6.02n + 1.76 dB

 Thus, each additional bit increases SNR by 6

dB, or a factor of 4
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Delta Modulation
 Analog input is approximated by
staircase function
 Moves up or down by one quantization
level () at each sampling interval
 The bit stream approximates derivative
of analog signal (rather than amplitude)
 1 is generated if function goes up
 0 otherwise
Delta Modulation
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Delta Modulation
 Two important parameters
 Size of step assigned to each binary digit ()
 Sampling rate
 Accuracy improved by increasing sampling
rate
 However, this increases the data rate
 Advantage of DM over PCM is the simplicity of
its implementation
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Reasons for Growth of Digital

Techniques
 Growth in popularity of digital
techniques for sending analog data
 Repeaters are used instead of amplifiers
 No additive noise
 TDM is used instead of FDM
 No intermodulation noise
 Conversion to digital signaling allows use
of more efficient digital switching
techniques