THE GLOBALIZATION OF

WORLD POLITICS
AN INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Prepared by: ROMMEL R. REGALA, Ph.D.

Catanduanes State University
 INTRODUCTION
FROM INTERNATIONAL POLITICS TO WORLD POLITICS
CHAPTER 1: GLOBALIZATION AND GLOBAL POLITICS

• Globalization involves:
• A stretching of social, political, and economic activities across
political frontiers.
• A growing magnitude of interconnectedness in almost every
sphere of social existence.
• An accelerating pace of global interactions and processes
associated with a deepening enmeshment of the local and the
global.

• Globalization is considered a historical process of fast-growing

interconnectedness in every sphere of social, political and
economic life, across political and national frontiers.
CHAPTER 1: GLOBALIZATION AND GLOBAL POLITICS

• In the first wave, the age of discovery (1450-1850), globalization

was decisively shaped by European expansion and conquest.

• Globalization in the age of discovery was a result of European

expansion and conquest, which then determined the order of the
world system.
CHAPTER 1: GLOBALIZATION AND GLOBAL POLITICS

• The second wave (1850-1945) evidenced a major expansion in

the spread and entrenchment of European empires.

• The second wave of globalization was characterized by the

attempts of European empires to enlarge their territories while at
the same time securing them from external interference.
CHAPTER 1: GLOBALIZATION AND GLOBAL POLITICS

• Asymmetrical globalization is the way in which contemporary

globalization is unequally experienced across the world and
amongst different social groups.

• The concept of asymmetrical globalization describes the unequal

effects of globalization on different parts of the world and among
different social groups leading to a distinctive pattern of
inclusion in and exclusion from the global system.
CHAPTER 1: GLOBALIZATION AND GLOBAL POLITICS

• The disaggregated state is the tendency for states to become

increasingly fragmented actors in global politics as every part of
the government machine becomes entangled with its foreign
counterparts and others in dealing with global issues through
proliferating transgovernmental and global policy networks.

• In a disaggregated state, the constituent agencies increasingly

interact with their counterparts abroad, international agencies
and NGOs in the management of common and global affairs. The
image of a foreign-domestic policy divide is replaced by formal
and informal transgovernmental networks.
CHAPTER 1: GLOBALIZATION AND GLOBAL POLITICS

• Skeptical accounts of globalization dismiss its significance

because they argue that:
• By comparison with the period 1870 to 1914, the world is now
less globalized economically, politically and culturally.
• The vast bulk of international economic and political activity
is concentrated within the group of OECD (Organizations for
Economic Co-operation and Development) states.
• Globalization is at best a self-serving myth or ideology which
reinforces Western and particularly US hegemony in world
politics.

• Skeptical accounts assume that globalization and

CHAPTER 1: GLOBALIZATION AND GLOBAL POLITICS

• State autonomy is challenged in the "post-Westphalian" order

because in a more interdependent world, national governments
are forced to engage in extensive multilateral collaboration and
co-operation simply to achieve domestic objectives.

• The capacity for self-governance of the state is compromised by

new types of problems that states cannot solve on their own. The
authority to do so is increasingly shared between the local,
national, regional and global level.
CHAPTER 1: GLOBALIZATION AND GLOBAL POLITICS

• Time-space compression is the technologically induced erosion of

distance and time, which gives the appearance of a world that is,
in communication terms, shrinking.

• The progress in communication technologies allows interaction

across the world immediately and without time constraints.
CHAPTER 1: GLOBALIZATION AND GLOBAL POLITICS

• The international Convention on the Elimination of Child Labor

was the product of a complex politics involving public and
private actors from trade unions, industrial associations,
humanitarian groups, governments, and legal experts.

• The Convention is one example for complex political coordination

among governmental, intergovernmental and non-state actors -
both public and private - in order to realize common purposes
through the making of global rules.
CHAPTER 1: GLOBALIZATION AND GLOBAL POLITICS

• The "Post-Westphalian Order" is characterized by:

• The sovereign power and authority of national government - the
entitlement of states to rule within their own territorial space - being
transformed but not necessarily eroded.
• A real dilemma: in return for more effective public policy and meeting
their citizens’ demands, whether in relation to the drugs trade or
employment, states’ capacity for self-governance - that is state autonomy
- is compromised.
• The emergence of a new geography of political organization and political
power, which transcends territories and borders.

• The main three elements of the Westphalian order - sovereignty,

state authority and territoriality - are affected by the
consequences of globalization. Sovereignty is increasingly
shared among national, regional and global actors; state
 PART 1

The Historical Context

CHAPTER 2: THE RISE OF MODERN INTERNATIONAL ORDER

• 'International orders' refers to regularized practices of exchange

among discrete political units.

• International orders are regularized practices of exchange among

discrete political units, which recognize each other to be
independent. International orders have existed ever since
political units began to interact on a regular basis, whether
through trade, diplomacy or the exchange of ideas. In this sense,
world history has seen a great many regional international
orders.
CHAPTER 2: THE RISE OF MODERN INTERNATIONAL ORDER

• International society is regulated by diplomacy, law, and the

balance of power.

• The three regulating mechanisms of international society are

diplomacy, international law, and the balance of power.
CHAPTER 2: THE RISE OF MODERN INTERNATIONAL ORDER

• Elements of international society can be found in Medieval

Christian Europe, Medieval Islam, and Ancient China.

• Ancient China, India, Rome, and both Christian and Islamic

medieval civilization bear evidence of international society.
CHAPTER 2: THE RISE OF MODERN INTERNATIONAL ORDER

• The Catholic Church helped constitute the normative basis of

international society.

• The Catholic Church, a form of supranational authority,

contributed to both the normative basis of international society,
and in particular, just war theory.
CHAPTER 2: THE RISE OF MODERN INTERNATIONAL ORDER

• Both exploration and colonization of the New World and The

Protestant Reformation contributed to the emergence of
international society.

• The exploration of the New World led to an interest in a political

entity's relations beyond its borders, while the Protestant
Reformation implicitly strengthened the principle of sovereign
equality by challenging Catholicism's claim to supreme authority.
CHAPTER 2: THE RISE OF MODERN INTERNATIONAL ORDER

• Skeptical accounts of international society believe both that it is

a rhetorical cover for self-serving powerful states and argue that
it is unable to cope with globalization.

• Skeptical accounts suggest both that international society is a

rhetorical justification of great power politics, and that
globalization poses significant challenges to the order of
international society.
CHAPTER 2: THE RISE OF MODERN INTERNATIONAL ORDER

• Challenges to international society posed directly by

globalization:
• Global warming.
• American power.
• Dissolution of the bonds of political community.

• The international society has endured for years in spite of

interstate war. New challenges involve civil conflict,
environmental strain, American hyperpower, and changing forms
of political community and identity; all of these challenge the
assumption of sovereign equality upon which international
society is founded. Interstate war is not a challenge to
CHAPTER 2: THE RISE OF MODERN INTERNATIONAL ORDER

• Organized hypocrisy is a term coined by political scientist

Stephen Krasner to refer to sovereignty, which is a caution
against idealistic conceptions of international society or the legal
fiction masking power relations between states.

• Organized Hypocrisy, the title of a 1999 book by Stephen

Krasner, suggests that sovereignty is a norm honored more in
the breach than in the observance, and cautions against
assuming that all states will always honor the precepts of
international society.
CHAPTER 2: THE RISE OF MODERN INTERNATIONAL ORDER

• The French and American Revolutions created new challenges to

international society by raising the issue of nationalism while
also leading to the creation of the Concert of Europe.

• The American (1776) and French (1789) Revolutions brought new

states and the concept of nationalism to the forefront of inter-
state relations, and led to the creation of the Concert of Europe
after the Napoleonic Wars.
CHAPTER 2: THE RISE OF MODERN INTERNATIONAL ORDER

• Hierarchical, Hegemonic, and Imperial offers an alternative to

international society as a way of organizing world politics.

• International society is distinguished from the above three ways

of ordering the world system by the principle of sovereign
equality.
CHAPTER 3: INTERNATIONAL HISTORY, 1900-1999

• Historian A.J.P. Taylor argued that Hitler was no different from

other German political leaders.

• In Origins of the Second World War, A.J.P. Taylor argued that

Hitler was no different from the German political leaders who had
preceded him. Fritz Fischer argued in Germany’s Aims in the First
World War that the war was caused by the international political
needs of an autocratic elite.
CHAPTER 3: INTERNATIONAL HISTORY, 1900-1999

• Under a structural explanation, the central problem of European

security in the first half of the twentieth century was the rise of a
united Germany.

• The increase in German power post-unification was seen as the

central security problem that the Versailles settlement failed to
solve. Although nationalism and economic crisis were both
important issues, the structural explanation focuses on the
effects of Germany's rise.
CHAPTER 3: INTERNATIONAL HISTORY, 1900-1999

• The First World War led to the dissolution of the Russian empire.

• Along with the German, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman

Empires, the Russian empire ended with the First World War.
CHAPTER 3: INTERNATIONAL HISTORY, 1900-1999

• Decolonization was partially determined by local or tribal factors,

by the attitudes of former colonizing powers, and was sometimes
replaced by superpower involvement.

• Decolonization varied across regions and former imperial

powers, and was also partially determined by factors in the area
undergoing decolonization as well as the level of involvement of
the new superpowers.
CHAPTER 3: INTERNATIONAL HISTORY, 1900-1999

• The Warsaw Pact was the Eastern bloc's answer to NATO and
gained impetus after the 1954 rearmament of West Germany.

• The North Atlantic Treaty Alliance (NATO) was the United States'
military commitment to its European allies. Signed in 1949, it
was followed in 1955 by the Warsaw Pact, which was largely
prompted by the rearmament of the Federal Republic of
Germany.
CHAPTER 3: INTERNATIONAL HISTORY, 1900-1999

• Efforts to achieve more cooperative relations between the

Western and Communist countries:
• Détente with the USSR.
• Rapprochement with China.
• German Ostpolitik.

• Détente with the USSR and rapprochement with China were both
efforts by the United States to achieve more cooperative
relations with Communist states in the 1970's. The same can be
said of West Germany's Ostpolitik.
CHAPTER 3: INTERNATIONAL HISTORY, 1900-1999

• The 'second cold war‘ followed the election of Ronal Reagan and
described a confrontational period in the late 1980s.

• After the election of President Ronald Reagan in 1980, relations

between the superpowers entered a more conflictual phase,
which has since been dubbed the "second cold war".
CHAPTER 3: INTERNATIONAL HISTORY, 1900-1999

• The USSR, the US, and Britain (in order) were the first three
states to achieve nuclear capability.

• The United States dropped the first atomic bomb in 1945; the
USSR tested in 1949, and the British followed with a test off the
Australian coast in 1952.
CHAPTER 3: INTERNATIONAL HISTORY, 1900-1999

• The Sinatra doctrine was a catchphrase for foreign policy under

Gorbachev.

• The Sinatra doctrine referred to Gorbachev's policy toward

Eastern Europe. It replaced the Brezhnev doctrine and was
paired with domestic policies of glasnost (openness) and
perestroika (restructuring).
CHAPTER 3: INTERNATIONAL HISTORY, 1900-1999

• Nuclear weapons crises during the cold war included the

following:
• Cuba (1962)
• Able Archer (1983)
• The Arab Israeli War (1979)

• In addition to the Berlin Crisis of 1961, these crises all ran a

significant risk of escalation to nuclear war, though how close
the superpowers came to war is still debated today.
CHAPTER 4: FROM THE END OF THE COLD WAR TO A NEW
GLOBAL ORDER

• The 'unipolar moment‘ refers to US primacy since 1989.

• The 'unipolar moment' is the position in which the United States

finds itself after the end of the cold war. Although scholars
debate whether multipolarity or another international system is
emerging, most believe that the US is still a global hegemon.
CHAPTER 4: FROM THE END OF THE COLD WAR TO A NEW
GLOBAL ORDER

• Explanations for the end of the cold war include:

• Gorbachev and Reagan's leadership.
• The relative economic strength of the United States.
• The ideological attractiveness of Western democracy and
capitalism.

• There is no clear consensus on the causes of the cold war; all

three explanations have been advanced.
CHAPTER 4: FROM THE END OF THE COLD WAR TO A NEW
GLOBAL ORDER

• Globalization in the post-cold war world became a defining term

of international discourse and had its extent contested by
scholars such as David Held and Martin Wolf.

• Globalization, though its precise meaning was contested,

became the key discourse of governments in the post-cold war
world.
CHAPTER 4: FROM THE END OF THE COLD WAR TO A NEW
GLOBAL ORDER

• US primacy is a key feature of and a challenge in the post-cold

war order.

• Very few people predicted US primacy, but it has become a

defining feature of the post-Cold-War world and as such is
debated hotly inside and outside the United States. 9/11 gave
direction to a formerly drifting US foreign policy.
CHAPTER 4: FROM THE END OF THE COLD WAR TO A NEW
GLOBAL ORDER

• Europe:
• Has struggled to reconcile deepening integration with
fragmentation, such as that in the former Yugoslavia.
• Is debating the extent and depth of a "European foreign and
security policy" but remains uncertain of their future.
• Emphasizes international institutions.

• Although Europe benefited immensely from the end of the cold

war, it continues to struggle with deepening integration and civil
conflict on its borders, the extent to which it should pursue a
collective foreign policy, and the role of international institutions.
CHAPTER 4: FROM THE END OF THE COLD WAR TO A NEW
GLOBAL ORDER

• Russian President Vladimir Putin has nationalized Russian

economic assets.

• Among other shifts in an authoritarian, assertive direction, Putin

has brought economic assets back under state control.
CHAPTER 4: FROM THE END OF THE COLD WAR TO A NEW
GLOBAL ORDER

• Challenges facing East Asia include North Korea's nuclear

program and outstanding territorial disputes.

• The North Korean nuclear program, territorial disputes between

many of the major powers, and the "rise of China" are examples
of challenges facing East Asia today.
CHAPTER 4: FROM THE END OF THE COLD WAR TO A NEW
GLOBAL ORDER

• The "rise of China“:

• Is an issue considered by every region of the world today.
• Is unequivocally a cause for optimism.
• Is characterized by a shift toward economic autarky.

• Regions around the world, from Europe to Africa, have had to

incorporate China into their foreign policy considerations as
China has become more and more of an international and
economic player. However, realist theory predicts that the rise of
China is likely to provoke international conflict.
CHAPTER 4: FROM THE END OF THE COLD WAR TO A NEW
GLOBAL ORDER

• Inequality:
• Creates new challenges in terms of domestic social stability,
migration, and political violence.
• Has become more important as globalization empowers sub-
state actors.
• Has caused scholars to reconsider the helpfulness of the term
"Third World".

• Although inequality has always been present, the end of the cold
war led scholars to reconsider the utility of the term "Third
World" to characterize poor and still-developing areas. It has led
to new challenges posed by the empowerment of sub-state
CHAPTER 4: FROM THE END OF THE COLD WAR TO A NEW
GLOBAL ORDER

• George W. Bush's foreign policy:

• Argued that old methods of dealing with contemporary
challenges were obsolete and ineffective.
• Changed direction sharply after 9/11.
• Led to a controversial war in Iraq whose reasons and effects
are still being highly debated.

• After 9/11 American foreign policy took a sharp turn: military

interventions in both Iraq and Afghanistan were based on the
premise that deterrence and the balance of power were
inadequate mechanisms by which to confront the threat posed
by transnational Islamic terrorism.
CHAPTER 5: RISING POWERS & THE EMERGING GLOBAL ORDER

• What is "unipolarity"?
• Unipolarity denotes the period of time after the post-cold war era, in which
the US emerged as the sole superpower. It describes the unrivalled extent
and many dimensions of US power.
• Unipolartiy refers to the dense set of trans-Atlantic and trans-Pacific
relations and alliance systems.
• Unipolarity was marked by Western-dominated institutions and
multilateral organizations originally created in the wake of the Second
World War.

• Unipolarity denotes the period of time after the post-cold war

era, in which the US emerged as the sole superpower. It was
manifest in the dense set of trans-Atlantic and trans-Pacific
relations and alliance systems, established, in the main, through
CHAPTER 5: RISING POWERS & THE EMERGING GLOBAL ORDER

• Soft power is getting others to agree with you without using

coercive force.

• Soft power is distinguished from hard, coercive power. In

contrast to the former, soft power refers to the power of
attraction, of getting others to emulate your own society and its
values.
CHAPTER 5: RISING POWERS & THE EMERGING GLOBAL ORDER

• An example of how emerging powers have impacted the

international governance system:
• Brazil and India have joined the US and the EU as members of
the WTO inner negotiating circle.
• While there has been a lot of discussion about reforming the UN
Security Council, and possibly include new permanent members,
it has so far failed to generate any actual change. In the WTO,
"major", countries, such as those in the "new quad" wield less
formal power, and groups can be formed more easily, and based
on existing verities. This illustrates the growing importance of
the emerging powers, but also how entrenched the more
formalized governance systems are.
CHAPTER 5: RISING POWERS & THE EMERGING GLOBAL ORDER

• Waiving special concessions based on their old developing

country status is an example of a nation trying to "graduate"
from the developing world category.

• It has been suggested that if a nation wants truly to join non-

developing countries as a full and accepted peer; it needs to
forego the special privileges that came with its old status as a
somehow subordinate power. This will likely be a test of the
resolve of such an ambition, as short-term pain must be weighed
against less tangible longer-term legitimacy and peer
recognition.
CHAPTER 5: RISING POWERS & THE EMERGING GLOBAL ORDER

• The Washington Consensus is a set of policy aims thought, by its

promoters, to maximize global welfare, by pushing for (among
other things) market liberalization and a reduced role for the
state.

• The notion is that a set of preferences how to maximize global

welfare was gradually turned into a "standardized" package of
policy recommendations adopted and promoted by influential
Washingtonites and others. The influence of these policy shapers
meant that the resulting "policy recipes" were in turn pushed by
international - but Washington-based - institutions such as the
International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. Critics have
CHAPTER 5: RISING POWERS & THE EMERGING GLOBAL ORDER

• Creating new formal organizations (such as the G20) to organize

countries is an example of increased "concert diplomacy“.

• Concert diplomacy is nothing new, but a resurgence of the idea

that great powers need to collaborate to organize norms of
international interaction, and thus the very order of international
society. Organizations such as the G20 provide venues for
recurring talks about such issues, and the realization that more
than just a handful of states (compare the veto-wielding powers
in the UN Security Council) are in fact required to partake in
these processes.
CHAPTER 5: RISING POWERS & THE EMERGING GLOBAL ORDER

• No reform(s) have been implemented during the tenure of General

Kofi Annan as Secretary despite of making it a priority to reform the
United Nations, including the Security Council.

• The structure of the UN Security Council is based on the political

realities of the late 1940s. Reform and modernization of its
governance system have been identified by numerous actors,
including Annan and Ban Ki-Moon, as crucial to reflect a changing
world, and so keep the organization relevant. Suggestions have
included the expansion of the number of permanent members, the
expansion of the number of non-permanent members or both.
Because change requires the agreement of at least two-thirds of UN
members and all the five veto-wielding powers, it has so far proved
CHAPTER 5: RISING POWERS & THE EMERGING GLOBAL ORDER

• The BASIC is a group of developing countries (Brazil, South

Africa, India and China) that have in some cases acted in unison
to strengthen their negotiation position vis-a-vis traditionally
strong parties such as the United States.

• The growing willingness of geographically far-flung emerging

powers to set up separate venues to explore and consolidate
positions, and then act in unison to push a common agenda
more forcefully is challenging entrenched international
negotiating norms and procedures - in some cases forcing a
sobering revision of presumed influence of these nations. BASIC
like IBSA and the BRICS developed out of the dissatisfaction of
CHAPTER 5: RISING POWERS & THE EMERGING GLOBAL ORDER

• Evidence that the United States has primarily been a status quo
power includes the statement is fundamentally flawed: the
United States has primarily been a revisionist power.

• The United States has often tried actively to promote values and
modes of governance that it subscribes to, with the implicit or
explicit aim to mold other nations in its own image. Such
activism also has an indirect component where guiding norms
are embedded in international organizations which will then in
turn promote them elsewhere in the world - sometimes to the
chagrin of regimes that do not naturally endorse such values. In
this sense, the US is not so much interested in the sustenance of
CHAPTER 5: RISING POWERS & THE EMERGING GLOBAL ORDER

• The "liberal global order“ is a 1990s assumption that liberal

values, as defined and promoted by the United States, were
"winning", leading to a more tranquil world.

• In the 1990s, there was a sense that the United States would be
- for the foreseeable future - be threatened by any competing
powers, and that the Western order was working. Weaker states
would have to submit, and the liberal order would gradually
expand. The predominance of this view in part obscured
competing claims, and third world dissatisfaction with the
envisaged global order. The rise of emerging powers, and their
growing influence in world affairs have further undermined the
 PART 2

Structures and Processes

CHAPTER 6: WAR AND WORLD POLITICS

• Traditional view of state-to-state war:

• Inter-state war may be becoming increasingly obsolete.
• Inter-state war is rooted in our understanding of a
Westphalian state system.

• Traditional understandings of interstate war argue that it is

based on a Westphalian state system which assumes national
sovereignty, and that the prevalence of non-state actors and civil
conflict, coupled with processes of globalization, render
interstate war less likely.
CHAPTER 6: WAR AND WORLD POLITICS

• Hedley Bull defined war as an "organized violence carried on by

political units against each other“.

• This definition was propagated by English school theorist Hedley

Bull in 1977.
CHAPTER 6: WAR AND WORLD POLITICS

• "War made the state, and the state made war."

• It comes from the work of historical sociologist Charles Tilly.

• Charles Tilly examined the effect of war as a force both requiring

and creating large-scale political organization in Europe during
the era 1000-2000 A.D.
CHAPTER 6: WAR AND WORLD POLITICS

• The characteristics of the Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA):

• It emphasizes the role of advances in military technology as
bringing about radical change in the character of war
• It neglects the complex political dimensions of warfare.

• The Revolution in Military Affairs focused on the effect of superior

technological and doctrinal development on modern warfare,
and became prominent in the 1990's. However, critics charge
that it omits discussion of war as a political struggle and thereby
grossly oversimplifies our understanding.
CHAPTER 6: WAR AND WORLD POLITICS

• ‘War's character has changed, though its nature has not’ is a

major theme of this chapter.

• As the title of the chapter indicates, the form, or character, of

war has changed to reflect modern conditions, but the nature of
warfare, as organized violence between political units, remains
unchanged.
CHAPTER 6: WAR AND WORLD POLITICS

• State autonomy challenged in the "post-Westphalian" order

because:
• Identity politics are increasingly important.
• Economic insecurity provokes civil conflict.
• Technological development and 'virtual war' have enabled
Western intervention.

• Today, economic insecurity exacerbated by interdependence and

the rising importance of identity politics have created civil
conflict which challenges the autonomy of the state. This is
especially true since 'virtual' high-tech war has facilitated
Western involvement in these conflicts.
CHAPTER 6: WAR AND WORLD POLITICS

• The following best describes Clausewitz's philosophy of war:

• War always involves passion, in the motives for fighting and in
the enmities that inspire and sustain killing in war.
• War is a sphere of sheer chance. Anything can happen.
• War involves reason. Political leaders and military staffs seek
to achieve objectives through war.

• Clausewitz's philosophy of war is premised on his trinities:

passion, chance, and politics. These, he argued, come together
in varying combinations in any given historical instance of war.
CHAPTER 6: WAR AND WORLD POLITICS

• Roles that have been changed by contemporary warfare:

• The media.
• Women.
• Children.

• Post-modern war is characterized by increased media

transparency, while 'new wars' often involve child soldiers and
women as combatants, in comparison to traditional
understandings of combatants as uniformed men.
CHAPTER 6: WAR AND WORLD POLITICS

• 'New wars' are supported by these types of activities:

• Hostage-taking.
• Illegal trafficking of diamonds and drugs.
• Arms smuggling across weakly enforced borders.

• Kaldor characterizes 'new wars' as those taking place in failed or

near-failed states where the government lacks authority or
ability to enforce the state's monopoly on violence; borders are
therefore permeable and a range of criminal activities occur to
facilitate the combatants' ability to conduct conflict.
CHAPTER 6: WAR AND WORLD POLITICS

• 'Total war‘ means that a state or other political entity is fighting

for its existence.

• A total war occurs when a state or other political entity is fighting

for its existence. In the Second World War, the Allies demanded
unconditional surrender from Nazi Germany. The war ended Adolf
Hitler's regime, the Third Reich. Note that a war can be limited
for one participant, and total for another.
CHAPTER 7: INTERNATIONAL AND GLOBAL SECURITY

• National security is a security largely defined in militarized

terms.

• "National security" was the dominant conceptualization of

security during the Cold War. Thinking about national security
during this time was mainly defined in militarized terms.
CHAPTER 7: INTERNATIONAL AND GLOBAL SECURITY

• “Uncertainty" so crucial to the realist account of security

because it leads to lack of trust in the international system.

• Uncertainty implies that states can never be sure of the

intentions of their neighbors and therefore they must always be
on their guard. Concepts closely linked to realist understandings
of uncertainty are the security dilemma and arms race.
CHAPTER 7: INTERNATIONAL AND GLOBAL SECURITY

• Security dilemma is a structural notion in which self-help

attempts of states to look after their security needs, tend
regardless of intention to lead to a rise in insecurity.

• The "security dilemma" is a constant feature of international

politics. Due to anarchy and uncertainty, any attempt by a state
to increase its security, regardless of its intentions, has to be
interpreted by other states as a threat to their security. The total
effect is a dynamic action-reaction which enhances insecurity.
CHAPTER 7: INTERNATIONAL AND GLOBAL SECURITY

• The realist pessimist position is based upon the assumptions

about the way the international system works:
• The international system is anarchic.
• States that are claiming sovereignty will inevitably develop
offensive military capabilities to defend themselves and
extend their power.
• States will want to maintain their independence and
sovereignty and therefore survival will be the driving force
influencing their behavior.
• The realist pessimist view stems from Hobbes, Machiavelli, and
Rousseau viewing the international system as a brutal arena in
which states seek to further their own security at the expense of
CHAPTER 7: INTERNATIONAL AND GLOBAL SECURITY

• “Institutionalized cooperation“:
• Cooperation through international institutions as an approach
to international security.
• Cooperation through institutions to creating mature anarchy

• The term "institutionalized cooperation" points out the role

institutions play in enhancing security. Cooperation through
international institutions can develop into more durable and
stable security systems and thus opens up the opportunity to
achieve greater overall international security.
CHAPTER 7: INTERNATIONAL AND GLOBAL SECURITY

• How does democratic peace theory challenge realism?

• It places importance on internal norms and institutions.
• It challenges realist occupation with balance of power.
• It argues that war is a function of a state being liberal or not.

• Democratic peace theory argues that internal norms and

institutions of liberal democracy do make a difference in
international politics. The balance-of-power mechanism thus is
not a general feature of inter-state relations; the actual behavior
of a state in the system is a function of its regime type.
CHAPTER 7: INTERNATIONAL AND GLOBAL SECURITY

• “Security community“ is a group of people who become

integrated and within a territory develop a sense of community.

• Deutsch's concept of "security communities" points to the

possibility that a group of people within a territory, via the
development of institutions and common practices, can develop
a sense of community that enhances the belief that common
social problems must and can be resolved by processes of
peaceful change.
CHAPTER 7: INTERNATIONAL AND GLOBAL SECURITY

• Walter Lippmann said:

• "A nation is secure to the extent to which it is not in danger of
having to sacrifice core values if it wishes to avoid war, and is
able, if challenged, to maintain them by victory in such a
war“.

• Walter Lippmann offered this as his definition of national

security. It is only one of several notions of the concept of
'security'.
CHAPTER 7: INTERNATIONAL AND GLOBAL SECURITY

• The problems with collective security:

• States find it difficult to distinguish between victim and
aggressor in international conflicts.
• It assumes that all aggression is wrong.
• Historical enmity or friendship complicates the working of the
system.

• According to J. Mearsheimer, the idea of collective security is

problematic as (among other reasons) states find it difficult to
distinguish between aggressor and the victim in international
conflicts; it considers all aggression to be wrong whereas there
may be circumstances where its use is necessary against a
CHAPTER 7: INTERNATIONAL AND GLOBAL SECURITY

• Post-modernists view realism as:

• A central problem of international security because it is the
dominant discourse of power and rule.
• A statist ideology out of touch with the reality of globalization.
• Unable to take into consideration the enormous complexity
and indeterminacy of human behavior across its cultural,
religious and historical roots.

• Realism as the dominant discourse in international politics has

provided an image of the world that encourages behavior that
helps to bring about war. Thus, Realism cannot grasp the
globalizing tendencies in world politics that is part of the
CHAPTER 8: GLOBAL POLITICAL ECONOMY

• Increased trade barriers and devalued currencies resulted from

the Great Depression.

• While each of the countries involved in the Great Depression

believed that by increasing trade barriers and devaluating
currencies it could manage to keep its economy afloat, the Great
Depression demonstrated that this did not work.
CHAPTER 8: GLOBAL POLITICAL ECONOMY

• The main role of the IMF is to ensure a stable exchange rate

regime and provide emergency assistance to countries facing
crises in balance of payments.

• The IMF was created to promote international monetary

cooperation and resolve the inter-war problems of the Great
Depression. The main goal of IMF is to achieve stable exchange
rates and one of its main tools is the provision of emergency
assistance to countries facing serious payment challenges.
CHAPTER 8: GLOBAL POLITICAL ECONOMY

• The main role of the World Bank is to assist countries in

development.

• What we now call the World Bank started as the International

Bank for Reconstruction and Development and has since become
the world's largest source of development assistance, providing
nearly $16 billion in loans annually.
CHAPTER 8: GLOBAL POLITICAL ECONOMY

• The "Washington Consensus“ is the ten point guideline to liberal

economic reform for development around the world.

• The term "Washington consensus" originally referred to a set of

policy advice on liberal economic reform being given by
Washington-based institutions to Latin America. Nowadays the
term is often used interchangeably with the phrase American
"neoliberal policies."
CHAPTER 8: GLOBAL POLITICAL ECONOMY

• States undertake protectionist measures to keep competitive

foreign goods from flooding the market.

• When using protectionist measures, states try to "shield" their

internal production, and hence domestic business and
employment, from international competition.
CHAPTER 8: GLOBAL POLITICAL ECONOMY

• Structural adjustment involve:

• Measures to reduce inflation.
• Measures to curb government expenditure.
• Deregulation.

• The term "structural adjustment" is usually used when referring

to the IMF's policy towards indebted countries. Structural
adjustments mean immediate measures to reduce inflation and,
more broadly, mean the correction of the role of the government
in the economy.
CHAPTER 8: GLOBAL POLITICAL ECONOMY

• The nationalist/realist view of International Political Economy

(IPE):
• The world economy is where states seek to maximize their
wealth and independence relative to other states.

• The nationalist/realist tradition stands in stark contrast to a

liberal perception. As mercantilists share the presumptions of
realists in international politics, states will attempt to ensure
their self-sufficiency and hence their relative strength and power
in key strategic industries and commodities.
CHAPTER 8: GLOBAL POLITICAL ECONOMY

• Dependency Theory refers to economic activity in the richer

countries that often leads to serious economic problems in the
poorer countries.

• Dependency Theory is part of the Marxist tradition in IPE and has

traditionally focused on Latin America to explain how
underdevelopment and poverty is caused by economic, social
and political structures in the core countries and the type of
exchange this is generating.
CHAPTER 8: GLOBAL POLITICAL ECONOMY

• The constructivist approach pays attention to how states and

other actors construct their preferences, highlighting the role of
identities, beliefs, tradition and values.

• The constructivist approach focuses on the role of historical and

sociological factors and examines the beliefs, roles, traditions,
ideologies and patterns of influence that shape preferences and
behavior of states and other actors.
CHAPTER 8: GLOBAL POLITICAL ECONOMY

• Under what conditions will states create international

institutions?
• It depends on the school of thought.

• Competing accounts of institutions will make different

statements about the possibility and probability of cooperative
behavior and international institution building. For example,
institutionalism emphases the role of institutions in achieving
absolute gains, whereas realists argue that institutions will only
be created when dominant states wish to do so.
CHAPTER 9: GENDER IN WORLD POLITICS

• “Emancipatory knowledge“ is a knowledge that will lead to

changes in favor of a normative ideal, such as gender equality.

• Much feminist theory is based on the idea of emancipation - the

belief in the capacity of knowledge to drive positive normative
change - specifically related to the improvement of women's
lives worldwide.
CHAPTER 9: GENDER IN WORLD POLITICS

• The myth of protection:

• It characterizes men as protectors and women as protected.
• It is used to justify and shape national security policies.
• It is a myth challenged by changing gender roles in
contemporary warfare.

• The protection myth is a popular assumption that men fight wars

to protect the vulnerable, including women and children, and has
been used to justify national security efforts. However, changing
roles of women as both the objects of violence in warfare and in
terms of increased participation as combatants has prompted
some revision of this myth.
CHAPTER 9: GENDER IN WORLD POLITICS

• The gendered division of labor is based on gender-structured

conceptions of appropriate work.

• The gendered division of labor results in women doing a high

proportion of unpaid labor in the home, while men work outside
for wages; it creates a "double burden" for women who seek to
work outside the home and has reinforced women's lower pay in
the global economy.
CHAPTER 9: GENDER IN WORLD POLITICS

• The idea of the gender-sensitive lens came from the feminist

theorists: Peterson and Runyan.

• Various "lenses" help us focus our attention and formulate

questions with regard to world politics. A gender-specific lens, as
proposed by Peterson and Runyan, helps us see how gender
structures world politics.
CHAPTER 9: GENDER IN WORLD POLITICS

• The gendering of world politics is seen in the following areas:

• Prostitution and human trafficking.
• Civil wars and refugee flows.
• Trade and development.

• In addition to many other areas of world politics, gender shapes

the three named above by defining roles and framing debates.
CHAPTER 9: GENDER IN WORLD POLITICS

• Intersectionality describes:
• Overlapping global structures of inequality
• A concept developed by feminists to analyze how sex and
gender play out in the everyday lives of women across the
globe
• The intertwining of economic and social status of women

• Intersectionality describes overlapping global structures of

inequality, which define the everyday lives of people
simultaneously. This means that gender is often found alongside
other forms of oppression/domination. In this sense, the
experience of gender domination is always located, while gender
CHAPTER 9: GENDER IN WORLD POLITICS

• Gender theorists see the following developments as progress

(but it depends on which gender theory you pick):
• The establishment of the UN Gender Development Index.
• The election of US Speaker Nancy Pelosi.
• The incorporation of "gender mainstreaming" into policy
discourse.

• Although all of these developments have positively influenced

women around the world, different theorists would have different
views of the extent of this 'progress'. For example, postcolonial
feminists would argue for diversifying the focus of gender
scholarship to include more women outside the West.
CHAPTER 9: GENDER IN WORLD POLITICS

• The impact of globalization for women:

• It has created new areas for women's advancement.
• It has led to new challenges and dangers for women.
• It has not changed the fundamental inequality of gender
relationships in the world enough.

• Globalization has created new opportunities as well as

challenges for women, but most feminists would agree that the
gender structure of world politics remains fundamentally unequal
and that continuing advocacy for change is needed.
CHAPTER 9: GENDER IN WORLD POLITICS

• The feminized labor refers to less desirable or secure work,

which has come to be associated with specific 'female' qualities.

• Feminized labor refers to less desirable or secure work, which

has come to be associated with specific 'female' qualities. This is
often accompanied with lesser liberties and freedoms and higher
violations of human rights at the work place.
CHAPTER 9: GENDER IN WORLD POLITICS

• “Double burden“:
• It refers to the disproportionate share of housework done by
women.
• It dates to the 17th century.
• It is rooted in gendered conceptions of the distinction
between public and private life.

• The "double burden' arose in the 17th century and refers to the
situation in which women were restricted to low-paying
production or service industries and also responsible for
significant amounts of unpaid domestic labor.
CHAPTER 10: RACE IN WORLD POLITICS

• 'White privilege‘ refers to the social advantages that accrue to

white persons

• The legal concept of 'white privilege' refers to the social

advantages that accrue to white persons due to their transparent
and fundamentally unquestioned competence and humanity. It is
examined by 'whiteness studies', where scholars now seek to
explain how the (often unspoken) privileges enjoyed by white
persons depend upon (often violent) processes of exclusion.
Answers a. and c. refer to the concept of 'whiteness'. While this
is, of course, related to notions of 'white privilege' it does not
define it directly.
CHAPTER 10: RACE IN WORLD POLITICS

• The cultural calculus of racism describes the racial ordering of

children of mixed race.

• The cultural calculus came out of the theological debate over

indigenous peoples. It was used to adjudicate the cultural
competencies of a group whose heritage lay outside of the 'old'
Biblical world, and the degree to which these competencies - the
ability to reason especially - allowed them to enjoy basic
protections as human beings.
CHAPTER 10: RACE IN WORLD POLITICS

• A 'Mulatto' described the cross between white and negro in the

official color hierarchies of the French Caribbean colony of St.
Dominque.
CHAPTER 10: RACE IN WORLD POLITICS

• Karl Marx argues that capitalism was premised on the 'turning of

Africa into a warren for the commercial hunting of black-skins‘.

• It was Karl Marx who argued that capitalism was premised on the
'turning of Africa into a warren for the commercial hunting of
black-skins'. Indeed, this is related to his more fundamental
claim that capitalist economic development for some/in some
places requires the exploitation of others/other places.
CHAPTER 10: RACE IN WORLD POLITICS

• ‘Standard of civilization‘ is a hierarchical ordering of humanity,

travelling through savagery, barbarism and civilization, which
was informed by enlightenment thinkers in Europe.

• The 'standard of civilization' denoted hierarchical stages of

humanity that travelled through savagery, barbarism and finally
civilization. It was developed in Europe during the mid-19th
century, but drew on enlightenment thinkers such as Baron de
Montesquieu.
CHAPTER 10: RACE IN WORLD POLITICS

• Distinctive characteristics of international legal arguments:

• They are limited to the scope of the legislation at hand.
• They are rhetorical as well as logical.

• International law is characterized by a peculiar language and

practice of justification or legal arguments. As interpretation
plays a central role in determining which rule applies, its
meaning and the nature of the case at hand, legal arguments are
logical as well as rhetorical.
CHAPTER 10: RACE IN WORLD POLITICS

• In 1848 Algeria became a departement of the French Republic.

• In 1848, Algeria became a departement of the French republic. It

was, therefore, no longer a colony. Therefore while citizens of
Algeria would have formerly enjoyed equal rights to French
citizens, when the French republic proposed equality among all
citizens, the culture of Algeria's indigenes (indigenous peoples)
was deemed too barbaric to be included in this equality.
CHAPTER 10: RACE IN WORLD POLITICS

• 'Scientific racism' was particularly prominent in the following era:

• Graeco-Roman antiquity.
• Age of the Enlightenment.
• The end of the 19th century.
• The beginning of the 20th century.

• 'Scientific racism' has a long-standing history in world politics.

While some periods of time were more prominently influenced by
the cultural calculus of racism, 'scientific racism', premised on
the biological calculus of racism, never completely vanished. It is
important to remember that 'scientific racism' is no more than a
kind of 'pseudoscience', though policy practices have had a real
CHAPTER 10: RACE IN WORLD POLITICS

• UNIA stands for Universal Negro Improvement Association.

• UNIA stands for Universal Negro Improvement Association. It

collaborated with the African Communities League and was
founded in colonial Jamaica. Over the years the organization
developed branches in almost all continents and came to take on
outward trappings of a state, responding directly to the legacies
of slavery, colonialism and racism.
CHAPTER 10: RACE IN WORLD POLITICS

• 'New Racism‘:
• Denotes the claim that 'ethnic minorities' migrating to Europe culturally
lack the institutional and moral sophistication to integrate into advanced
liberal-democratic societies.
• Is fundamental to development and security policies in the era of the
Global War On Terror.
• Is present in the arguments of 'liberal peace' proponents, who claim that
societies of the Global South can only avoid poverty and conflict by
adopting Western systems of governance.

• The "New Stream" critique of Liberalism (also termed "Critical

Legal Studies") challenges the inherent Liberalism of modern
international legal thought. The three given propositions all refer
to the claim that traditional legal theory is somewhere stuck
CHAPTER 11: INTERNATIONAL LAW

• "Jus ad bellum“ refers to laws of war governing when it is legal to

use force or wage war.

• The legal concept of "jus ad bellum" refers to those laws that

determine when it is legally permitted to use force or wage war.
For instance, Chapter 7 of the UN Charter restricts the legitimate
use of force to international peace enforcement actions
authorized by the Security Council and individual and collective
self-defense.
CHAPTER 11: INTERNATIONAL LAW

• The following are necessary before a rule can be considered

customary international law:
• Evidence of general state practice.
• Evidence that states accept such practice as law.

• Evidence of general practice means that states habitually act in

a manner consistent with the rule. The Opinio juris claim implies
that states are convinced that they act according to a law when
they carry out this practice. In that case, customary law is
binding upon all states.
CHAPTER 11: INTERNATIONAL LAW

• The three levels of institutions in modern international society:

• Constitutional institutions, fundamental institutions, and
regimes.

• In modern international society, states have created these three

levels of institutions. Constitutional institutions are deep
institutions, such as the principle of sovereignty; fundamental
institutions provide the basic rules and practices of states;
regimes (or issue-specific institutions) enact fundamental
institutional practices in particular realms.
CHAPTER 11: INTERNATIONAL LAW

• Distinctive characteristics of the modern institution of

international law?
• A peculiar language of reasoning and argument.
• Multilateral form of legislation.
• A strong discourse of institutional autonomy.

• Contemporary international law is structured by the social and

political conditions of modernity and contains imprints of its
revolution for social thought. Hence, the language of reasoning
and argument, a distinct multilateralism in lawmaking and a
discourse of institutional autonomy are some of its
characterizing features.
CHAPTER 11: INTERNATIONAL LAW

• Ways that the nature and scope of international society have

been conditioned by international legal instruments:
• They have defined the nature of legitimate statehood.
• They have clarified the bounds of rightful state action,
international and domestic.

• Referring to the constitutional dimension of international law,

some legal instruments in history have been decisive in defining
the nature and scope of international society, such as the
Treaties of Westphalia. This helped to define the nature of
legitimate statehood and the Charter of the United Nations,
clarifying the bounds of legitimate action towards other states.
CHAPTER 11: INTERNATIONAL LAW

• Distinctive characteristics of international legal arguments:

• They are limited to the scope of the legislation at hand.
• They are rhetorical as well as logical.

• International law is characterized by a particular language and

practice of justification or legal arguments. As interpretation
plays a central role in determining which rule applies, its
meaning and the nature of the case at hand, legal arguments are
logical as well as rhetorical.
CHAPTER 11: INTERNATIONAL LAW

• Legal positivism:
• The idea that legal rules have legitimacy from their logical
and practical derivation from a fundamental "grundnorm".
• The idea that authority of legal rules comes from their status
as the commands of a sovereign authority.

• Legal positivism has dominated international legal theory in the

20th century. It assumes the authority of the law lies in the legal
rules themselves and thus can be derived from either their
status as commands of a sovereign authority or from their
derivation from a fundamental "grundnorm".
CHAPTER 11: INTERNATIONAL LAW

• Neo-liberal approach to international law is NOT limited through:

• By its inability to explain the development of law in areas
where the self-interests of states are unclear.
• By the failure to explain the origins of the modern system of
international law.
• By its rejection of the idea that international law constitutes
the identities and interests of states.

• The neo-liberal approach emphasizes the domestic origin of

state preferences as, in turn, international law. Hence, its
principal limitation is that it neglects the role international law
can play in constituting the domestic realm.
CHAPTER 11: INTERNATIONAL LAW

• New Haven School is also known as the policy approach.

• The New Haven School is one attempt to move beyond legal

positivism in international legal theory. It is a "policy-oriented"
approach that assumes that the authority of international law
rests upon an empirically derived normative philosophy of
human justice.
CHAPTER 11: INTERNATIONAL LAW

• "New Stream" critique of Liberalism:

• The determinacy of international legal rules is questionable.
• The underlying logic of Liberalism in international law is
incoherent.
• International legal thought operates within a confined
intellectual structure.

• The "New Stream" critique of liberalism (also termed "Critical

Legal Studies") challenges the inherent liberalism of modern
international legal thought. The three given propositions all refer
to the claim that traditional legal theory is somewhere stuck
between "apology" (a rationalization of the status quo) and
CHAPTER 12: INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS IN
WORLD POLITICS

• International Organizations means a catch-all term, which is

concerned with intergovernmental collaboration in organizations.

• IO is a catch-all term, which includes any organization operating

at the international level, comprised of actors from at least three
states. NGO's are only sometimes included in such terminology.
CHAPTER 12: INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS IN
WORLD POLITICS

• The first modern IO was the Central Commission for the

Navigation of the Rhine

• The first modern IO, the Central Commission for the Navigation
of the Rhine, was established in 1815 to facilitate states' riparian
relations (between land and water).
CHAPTER 12: INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS IN
WORLD POLITICS

• The creation of 'spin-off' IO's occurs through the process of

Emanation.

• It is becoming more common for IOs to be established by

approval of the members of a pre-existing IO through a process
known as emanation.
CHAPTER 12: INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS IN
WORLD POLITICS

• The ILO is a tripartite decision-making body.

• The International Labor Organization (ILO) has a tripartite

decision-making process that gives equal voice to states,
workers, and employers at its labor conference, in its governing
council, and in its office.
CHAPTER 12: INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS IN
WORLD POLITICS

• Hybrid international organization refers to an international

organization comprised of both state and non-state actors.

• Hybrid international organizations have multi-level members,

which illustrates the complexity of public-private, multi-actor
governance at the global level. An example of a hybrid
international organization is International Standard Organization
(ISO).
CHAPTER 12: INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS IN
WORLD POLITICS

• PIU stand for Public International Unions.

• Many of the first modern IOs in the 19th century were 'apolitical'
technical organizations created to devise solutions to the
differing standards among states, known as Public International
Unions (PIU).
CHAPTER 12: INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS IN
WORLD POLITICS

• Multilateralism refers to the practice of coordinating national

policies in groups of three or more states.
CHAPTER 12: INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS IN
WORLD POLITICS

• According to this chapter, an IO must be comprised of actors

from at least three states.
CHAPTER 12: INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS IN
WORLD POLITICS

• The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)

was established in 1951.

• In 1951 states created the United Nations High Commissioner for

Refugees (UNHCR) to aid states in meeting their obligations
under the Refugee Convention. This is an example of the
relevance of moral authority for the establishment of IO's.
CHAPTER 12: INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS IN
WORLD POLITICS

• 'Collective action' means that States can benefit from

international cooperation.

• Collective action is a term most commonly associated with

liberalism and neo-liberalism. It denotes the idea that states can
benefit from international cooperation, in the context of the
anarchic international system.
CHAPTER 13: THE UNITED NATIONS

• The main powers and duties of the UN Secretary-General:

• Provide support for peacekeeping activities.
• Carry out a number of research functions and quasi
management functions.

• The Secretary-General as head of the Secretariat is responsible

for the substantive and administrative work as directed by the
General Assembly and the Security Council. Hence, support of
peacekeeping activities and execution of management functions
are among his tasks, but not the approval of UN resolutions.
CHAPTER 13: THE UNITED NATIONS

• The permanent members of the UN Security Council:

• France, Russia, USA, Britain, China.

• These five permanent members (France, Russia, USA, Britain and

China) were seen as the major powers when the UN was founded
in 1945. They were granted veto rights on the view that if big
powers were not given a privileged position the UN would not
work.
CHAPTER 13: THE UNITED NATIONS

• Specialized UN agencies refers to large institutions which are part

of the UN system that have their own constitutions, regularly
assessed budgets, executive heads, and assemblies of state
representatives, not subject to the management of the central
system.

• Institutions such as the World Health Organization, the

International Labor Organization and the Food Agriculture
Organization, even though part of the large UN system, are self-
contained constitutionally, financially, and politically.
CHAPTER 13: THE UNITED NATIONS

• The current members of the Trusteeship Council are the

permanent members of the Security Council.

• The Trusteeship Council, which completed its work in 1994 with

Palau attaining independence, consists of the five permanent
members of the Security Council.
CHAPTER 13: THE UNITED NATIONS

• Classical peacekeeping involves the establishment of a UN force

under UN command to be placed between conflicting parties
after a ceasefire.

• Classical peacekeeping mandates are based on Chapter VI of the

UN Charter. It involves the consent of the host state and can only
take place after the negotiation of a cease-fire. UN forces are
placed between the parties to secure this ceasefire and will only
use weapons in self-defense.
CHAPTER 13: THE UNITED NATIONS

• Main ways in which the UN became involved in maintaining

peace and security in the mid-1990s:
• By resisting aggression between states and attempting to
resolve disputes within states,
• By focusing on conditions within states, including economic,
social, and political conditions.

• In the 1990s, the UN started to address international conflicts as

well as civil wars. In doing so, the concept of international
stability and peace was broadened to issues of economic, social
and political conditions within states.
CHAPTER 13: THE UNITED NATIONS

• Argument against relaxing the principle of non-intervention:

• Because it may lead to military action by individual states
without UN approval.

• Even though the UN has been more ready to intervene within

states, state sovereignty and non-intervention remain important.
Actions within the territory of another without a clear UN
authorization such as the US-led action against Iraq in 2003
could illustrate the danger of relaxing the principle of non-
intervention.
CHAPTER 13: THE UNITED NATIONS

• Country strategy notes:

• They are statements about the overall development process
tailored to the specific needs of individual countries, setting
out targets, roles and priorities.
• They are country-specific strategies set out by the United
Nations General Assembly, later ratified by ECOSOC as part of
the reform process to the UN.

• "Country Strategy Notes" are a result of attempts to

professionalize and reform the country level process of the UN
economic and social programs. Specialized agencies and
programs develop a country-specific development strategy that
CHAPTER 13: THE UNITED NATIONS

• Human security refers to the security of individuals, including:

their physical safety, their economic and social well-being,
respect for their dignity, and the protection of their human
rights.

• The concept of "human security" represents one attempt to

broaden the traditional concept of security by including social,
political, economic and environmental threats to the security of
people.
CHAPTER 13: THE UNITED NATIONS

• Why will further UN reform be necessary?

• Because of the heightened concern over terrorism and
security threats from non-state actors, the pervasiveness of
inequality and injustice around the world, and the
predominance of United States military power, and the need
for regional representation in the UN Security Council.

• Changes in the nature of international politics and sovereign

states and the rise of new threats and challenges have to be
reflected in changes and adaptation within the UN system in
order to improve the capacity of the UN of providing solutions to
those problems.
CHAPTER 14: NGOS IN WORLD POLITICS

• Transnational actors refers to any civil society actor from one

country that has relations with any actor from another country or
an international organization.

• The term "transnational actors" is very broad and entails any

actor involved in international relations that are society-based
rather than state-based.
CHAPTER 14: NGOS IN WORLD POLITICS

• Problems with the state-centric approach to IR:

• There are different meanings to the term "state".
• There is a difference between nation and state.
• There is a lack of similarity between countries.

• "State" is a contested concept as there are many different and

inconsistent meanings to the term and the entities that we
normally describe as states are in themselves very different from
each other. In particular differences between the concepts of
"nation" and "state" are often confused.
CHAPTER 14: NGOS IN WORLD POLITICS

• The term 'nongovernmental organization' was first used by

Dwight W. Morrow, the US politician and diplomat, in 1919.
CHAPTER 14: NGOS IN WORLD POLITICS

• "Nongovernmental organizations“:
• Can be initiated by states.
• Can be initiated by individuals.
• Is an umbrella term applied to a broad range of organizations
that differ in size, scope, motives, and functions.

• NGO is an umbrella term applied to a broad range of

organizations that differ in size, scope, motives, and functions.
Despite its name, some NGOs have been initiated by states
rather than individuals
CHAPTER 14: NGOS IN WORLD POLITICS

• A "network“ is any structure of communication for individuals

and/or organizations to exchange information, share
experiences, or discuss political goals or tactics.

• Compared to an NGO, a network is a broader term comprising

any form of structured communication on an issue-area. It
normally has a less permanent organizational form, no formal
leadership or declared membership and rather focuses on
exchange of information than on collective action.
CHAPTER 14: NGOS IN WORLD POLITICS

• Partnerships of the kind that Oxfam maintains with the British

department store Mark and Spencer is an example of Public-
Private Partnership.

• Partnerships of the kind that Oxfam maintains with the British

department store Mark and Spencer is an example of a public-
private partnership. These are governance arrangements
intended for mutual benefit and to ensure adherence to agreed
rules.
CHAPTER 14: NGOS IN WORLD POLITICS

• Hybrid INGO is formed when a government and an NGO form

joint organizations of which both can be members.

• The normal sharp distinction between inter-governmental

organizations and international non-governmental organizations
does not apply for hybrid INGOs in which governments work with
NGOs. Among the most important hybrids are the International
Red Cross and the World Conservation Union.
CHAPTER 14: NGOS IN WORLD POLITICS

• The term 'transnational NGO' make reference to the fact that

national NGOs increasingly mobilize at the international level.

• Transnational NGOs (TNGOs) has become a popular term to take

account of the fact that national NGOs increasingly mobilize at
the international level. This means that there is wider
cooperation among TNGOs and other civil society actors, whose
interests TNGOs claim to represent.
CHAPTER 14: NGOS IN WORLD POLITICS

• Policy domain refers to a set of political questions that are seen

as being related.

• A policy domain may cover several issues as it comprises a set

of political questions that are linked by the political processes in
an international organization, e.g. financial policy is resolved in
the IMF.
CHAPTER 14: NGOS IN WORLD POLITICS

• 'Track-tow-diplomacy' refers to the idea that TNGOs have

become an alternative to the official negotiations of government
diplomats.

• Track-two-diplomacy refers to the idea that TNGOs have become

an alternative to the official negotiations of government
diplomats.
CHAPTER 15: REGIONALISM IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

• Regionalism refers to development of institutionalized

cooperation among states and other actors on the basis of
regional contiguity as a feature of global politics.

• Regionalism is, alongside globalization, one of the major trends

in global politics. It refers to the cooperation and integration on a
regional (meaning continental) scale.
CHAPTER 15: REGIONALISM IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

• Supranationalism refers to a concept in integration theory that

implies the creation of common institutions having independent
decision-making authority and thus the ability to impose certain
decisions and rules on member states.

• Supranational organizations have to be viewed in contrast to

merely intra-governmental international organizations in that
they create an independent decision-making authority to which
governments delegate their decisions. This allows organizations
to impose certain decisions and rules on member states.
CHAPTER 15: REGIONALISM IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

• European Court of Justice refers to the EU's highest court, ruling

in disputed matters of EU law between member states.

• The European Court of Justice is one of the organizations at the

supranational level of the European Union. It is the highest
juridical authority for EU law and rules in disputes between
member states and institutions.
CHAPTER 15: REGIONALISM IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

• Role of the European Commission:

• Initiating, administering and overseeing the implementation
of EU policies and legislation.

• The European Commission is the central supranational institution

of the EU. It is the 'guardian of the treaties' and has the right to
initiate, administer, and oversee EU policies and legislation.
CHAPTER 15: REGIONALISM IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

• Role of intergovernmental conferences:

• It is where representatives of national governments negotiate
the legal framework within which the EU institutions operate.

• The IGCs set the future direction of the European Union by

negotiating the further development and changes of the legal
framework within which the EU institutions operate. They are
considered as the "great bargains" in the evolution of the EU.
CHAPTER 15: REGIONALISM IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

• MERCOSUR is a Latin American regional institution.

• MERCOSUR (or "Common Market of the South") is the result of

regional integration efforts in Latin American. Its contracting
states are Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.
CHAPTER 15: REGIONALISM IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

• What did the Single European Act of 1985 create?

• It removed all non-trade barriers to the mobility of goods,
people, services and capital.

• The Single European Act is the result of efforts to accomplish the

project of the "Single Market". It removed all non-trade barriers
by establishing a general freedom of movement for goods,
people, services and capital throughout the EU.
CHAPTER 15: REGIONALISM IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

• The 2001 Nice Treaty led to the expansion of majority voting.

• The Intergovernmental Conference in Nice aimed at dealing with

the so called "Amsterdam leftovers," which included an
expansion of the majority voting in order to make EU decision-
making more efficient on the eve of enlargement.
CHAPTER 15: REGIONALISM IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

• The 2004 Constitutional Treaty:

• Simplified the earlier treaties.
• Creates the post of President of the Council and EU Foreign
Minister.
• Incorporates the Fundamental Rights Charter.

• The agreement to adopt a Constitutional Treaty is regarded as a

step towards greater political union. By simplifying earlier
treaties, the creation of the post of a President and the
incorporation of the Fundamental Rights Charter, more
transparency and thus options for identification of the citizens
with the EU should be achieved.
CHAPTER 15: REGIONALISM IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

• Dynamics of globalization that have been mirrored by the

developments in the EU:
• EU integration has fed on and contributed to the global trend
towards neo-liberal economic policy.
• The trend towards greater social and cultural exchange has
intensified.
• Despite the growth of an integrated market there is a limited
integrated civil society.

• From this perspective, the EU reflects global trends prevailing in

the current international economy. Trade barriers have been
replaced by an open, internal market, which in turn enhances not
 PART 3

International Issues
CHAPTER 16: ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

• Traditional environmental issues include the following:

• Natural resource conservation.
• Pollution.
• Exploitation of maritime resources

• From the 1960s, environmental attention focused on

conservation of natural resources and pollution problems.
Climate change gained increasing attention on the agenda
during the 1990s.
CHAPTER 16: ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

• The tragedy of the commons:

• It results from an inherent tension between collective and
individual responsibility.

• The tragedy of the commons is based on inherent conflict

between individual and collective interest and rationality in the
use of property that is held in common; it is mitigated by a high
carrying capacity of the good in question and, in non-IR models,
is often solved through privatization and nationalization.
However, this solution is not always feasible for global political
commons.
CHAPTER 16: ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

• Realist approaches to environmental politics:

• Realist theories focus on questions of state power and
interest.

• Realist theories of environmental politics refer to questions of

state power and interest rather than the role of ideas,
communities, or institutions.
CHAPTER 16: ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

• “Precautionary principle“:
• It is German in origin.
• It advocates for a higher standard for environmental action.
• It has become increasingly popular.

• The precautionary principle, originally coined by German policy-

makers, states that where there is a likelihood of environmental
damage, banning an activity should not require full and definitive
scientific proof.
CHAPTER 16: ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

• Norms of environmental protection includes the following:

• The precautionary principle.
• The polluter pays.
• Prior informed consent.

• Various norms of increased environmental protection have been

increasingly disseminated throughout the international system,
including the ones listed above.
CHAPTER 16: ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

• Capacity building involve:

• Arrangements for the transfer of funds, technology and
expertise.
• Environmental projects in developed countries.

• Most environmental conventions now aim at 'capacity building'

through arrangements for the transfer of funds, technology and
expertise to developing countries, because most of their
member-states simply lack the resources to participate fully in
international agreements.
CHAPTER 16: ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

• Influences of scientific knowledge:

• It is disseminated through epistemic communities.
• It has played a key role in the creation of framework
conventions and control protocols.
• It has particularly influenced the discourse of climate change.

• Scientific knowledge, disseminated through epistemic

communities, has played a key role in the creation of legal and
institutional mechanisms to address environmental issues,
particularly climate change.
CHAPTER 16: ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

• Estimating the area of productive land or aqua system required

to sustain a population at its specified standard of living creates
ecological footprint.

• Used to demonstrate the load placed upon the Earth's carrying

capacity by individuals or nations, an ecological footprint
estimates the area of productive land or aquasystem required to
sustain a population at its specified standard of living.
CHAPTER 16: ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

• The regime under which the production and trading of CFCs and
other ozone depleting substances would be progressively phased
out is called the Montreal Protocol.

• The Montreal Protocol negotiated a regime for the cessation of

production of CFC's and other substances responsible for
depletion of the ozone layer.
CHAPTER 16: ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

• Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:

• Was set up in 1988 under the auspices of WMO and UNEP.
• Focuses on climate science, impacts, and economic and social
dimensions of climate change.
• Has concluded that warming of the climate system is
unequivocal.

• The IGCC began in 1988 and focuses on the consequences and

causes of climate change, which it concluded in February 2007 is
undeniably taking place.
CHAPTER 17: TERRORISM AND GLOBALIZATION

• Which characteristic do globalization and terrorism share?

• Both are complex and open to subjective interpretation.

• Both are complicated, interdisciplinary phenomena that defy

simple characterization. Definitions of terrorism vary widely but
all include the use of violence as a main feature; beyond that,
definitions involve, as for globalization, different elements and
value judgements.
CHAPTER 17: TERRORISM AND GLOBALIZATION

• The realists suggested that the State has a monopoly on the

legitimate use of physical force.

• Realists suggest that the political violence used by terrorist

groups is illegitimate on the basis that states alone have a
monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force.
CHAPTER 17: TERRORISM AND GLOBALIZATION

• Factors that lead to the birth of transnational terrorism:

• The expansion of air travel.
• The wider availability of televised news coverage.
• Broad common political and ideological interests.

• Expansion of air travel, wider news coverage and broad common

political and ideological interests allow terrorism to grow from a
local and regional phenomenon into an international threat.
CHAPTER 17: TERRORISM AND GLOBALIZATION

• Elements composing bin Laden's central message:

• The defense of oppressed Muslims and the defeat of
theological enemies of Islam.
• The requirement for absolute religious piety and devotion.
• The defeat of the theological enemies of Islam.

• The message of Osama bin Laden combined a number of

disparate elements such as the restoration of the former
greatness of Islam, the defense of oppressed Muslims and the
defeat of the theological enemies of Muslims, the requirement of
absolute religious piety and a rejection of secular materialism.
CHAPTER 17: TERRORISM AND GLOBALIZATION

• Global Capitalism was the target of the symbolic attacks against

the World Trade Centre in 1993 and 2001.

• Economic aspects appear to be a fundamental motivating factor

in the use of violence to effect political change. Globalization is
seen as a new form of "economic imperialism" in which the
"West" dominates and forces unfavorable policies on the
underdeveloped countries.
CHAPTER 17: TERRORISM AND GLOBALIZATION

• Video recordings are useful to terrorist groups to recruit

members.

• Video footage has been used to record the preparations or

results of attacks and helps to "inspire" potential recruits, but is
also suitable to reach the widest audience possible through
global news outlets.
CHAPTER 17: TERRORISM AND GLOBALIZATION

• Complications in the search for terrorists and terrorist cells:

• Increase in trade and commerce throughout the world.
• The use of cellular phone technology.
• The globalization of commerce.

• Added mobility and the reduced size and increased power of

personal electronics gives terrorists the capability to coordinate
the activities of dispersed cells and increased volumes of air
travel and goods create control problems. Although one of the
main contemporary worries with regards to refugees is that
terrorists are able to transfer national borders more easily under
this demise, increase legal immigration should not complicated
CHAPTER 17: TERRORISM AND GLOBALIZATION

• Hollywood blockbuster films has provided inspiration for terrorist

attacks by bin Laden and Islamic Fundamentalists.

• This is another element of the interconnection between terrorism

and the influence of globalized media, which is suspected to be a
motivating element behind the fascination of Al Qaeda leaders
with mass casualties and spectacular scenes of destruction.
CHAPTER 17: TERRORISM AND GLOBALIZATION

• Arguments over semantics and definitions has stalled action in

the UN directed towards terrorism.

• A rules-based attempt to fight terrorism within the framework of

the UN has been unsuccessful mainly because various debates in
the General Assembly could not resolve arguments over
semantics and definitions.
CHAPTER 17: TERRORISM AND GLOBALIZATION

• What can terrorists hope for in order to be successful in the

future?
• Widespread uprising of the disaffected and oppressed, or
collapse of the USA.

• Globalization and a growing gap between the rich and poor

might cause more people to fight against suppression. Further,
terrorism might become more attractive if it actually reaches its
goal through a collapse of their adversary after an attack.
CHAPTER 18: PROLIFERATION OF WEAPONS
OF MASS DESTRUCTION

• Sagan's proliferation pessimism argument:

• Because of common biases, professional military organizations display
organizational behaviors that are likely to lead to deterrence failures
and deliberate or accidental war.
• In the future, there will be a lack of positive constraining mechanisms
of civilian control while military biases may serve to encourage nuclear
weapons use, especially during crises. This is because future nuclear-
armed states are likely to have military-run or weak civilian
governments.

• With his arguments, Sagan tries to counter the argument that

the gradual spread of nuclear weapons to additional states might
be a good thing as nuclear deterrence is the only way to
maintain stability in conflict situations. Sagan argues that the
CHAPTER 18: PROLIFERATION OF WEAPONS
OF MASS DESTRUCTION

• Criticisms of the nuclear non-proliferation regime:

• It is not well-suited to the demands of the complex and
potentially more dangerous second nuclear age.
• It does not address the security motivation which leads states
to acquire nuclear weapons in first place.
• It is unable to alleviate the security dilemma that many states
confront and it is a discriminatory arrangement.

• Critics of the non-proliferation regime argue that it is a product of

a bygone "first nuclear age" (1945-1990). The second nuclear
age presents different demands. States face a different security
dilemma and hence have some motivation to acquire nuclear
CHAPTER 18: PROLIFERATION OF WEAPONS
OF MASS DESTRUCTION

• The category "WMD" include:

• Atomic explosive weapons.
• Lethal chemical and biological weapons.

• The UN Commission introduced the concept of "weapon of mass

destruction" for Conventional Armaments in 1948 in order to
distinguish nuclear weapons from conventional forms. Any
weapons should be included that have "characteristics
comparable in destructive effects to those of the atomic bomb",
hence also chemical and biological weapons.
CHAPTER 18: PROLIFERATION OF WEAPONS
OF MASS DESTRUCTION

• In 2001, the USA withdraw from the ABM treaty.

• The interest of developing a means to counter a possible ballistic

missile attack on US mainland, the so-called Ballistic Missile
Defense, led to erosion and finally the withdrawal of the USA
from the ABM treaty on 13 December 2001.
CHAPTER 18: PROLIFERATION OF WEAPONS
OF MASS DESTRUCTION

• How are the motivations for having nuclear weapons best

described?
• Strategic deterrence, political and prestige benefits.

• The strategic motivation focuses on the role that nuclear

weapons play as war-fighting and war-winning weapons or the
deterrence of other nuclear weapons-capable states. The
political and prestige motivation refers to the conviction that
nuclear weapons are the most modern form of weaponry.
CHAPTER 18: PROLIFERATION OF WEAPONS
OF MASS DESTRUCTION

• "Atoms for Peace“ refers to the the title of an Eisenhower speech

which culminated on the creation of the IAEA.

• Eisenhower proposed in this speech an initiative to open the

benefits of atomic energy to the world community; i.e.
implementing "Atoms of Peace". The IAEA hence was a
necessary and comprehensive monitoring system to ensure that
nuclear energy programs were not diverted for military use.
CHAPTER 18: PROLIFERATION OF WEAPONS
OF MASS DESTRUCTION

• The first Nuclear Weapon-Free Zone was applied in Latin

America.

• The Treaty for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin

America (or Tlateloco Treaty) was one of the first measures to
prevent the nuclearization of a specific geographical area. It was
opened for signature in 1967.
CHAPTER 18: PROLIFERATION OF WEAPONS
OF MASS DESTRUCTION

• Counter proliferation is a strategy which emphasizes the use of

measures such as ballistic missile defenses and a more proactive
stance in the prevention of nuclear proliferation.

• Counter proliferation is one of the measures to prevent nuclear

proliferation during the so-called second nuclear age. It implies
the use of conventional weapons and missile defense, i.e. a more
proactive or offensive policy of prevention.
CHAPTER 18: PROLIFERATION OF WEAPONS
OF MASS DESTRUCTION

• Agreements that controls export among suppliers to constrain

the proliferation of missile technology:
• The Hague Code of Conduct.
• The Missile Technology Control Regime

• The Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) are guidelines

established in 1987 by seven missile technology exporters to
control the sale of nuclear-capable ballistic or cruise missiles.
The Hague Code of Conduct (2002) seeks to develop standards
of appropriate behavior in the transfer of missiles and missile
parts.
CHAPTER 18: PROLIFERATION OF WEAPONS
OF MASS DESTRUCTION

• Which states are NOT signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation

Treaty (NPT)?
• Israel
• Pakistan
• India

• The treaty has 189 State Parties, which is the largest number of
any arms control agreement. However, India, Israel and Pakistan
have not signed the NPT. It remains questionable, how, if at all,
these states can be brought into the Treaty. North Korea
announced its withdrawal in 2003, and further announced that it
had conducted an underground nuclear explosion in 2006 and
CHAPTER 19: NATIONALISM, NATIONAL SELF-DETERMINATION

• The basic assumptions of nationalism:

• The nation as the fundamental political unit.
• The nation as basis of political loyalty and identity.
• The demand for self-determination.

• Nationalism takes the nation as its fundamental political unit and

the basis for people's political identity and loyalty; the latter of
which results in the demand for self-determination, usually in the
form of an autonomous state.
CHAPTER 19: NATIONALISM, NATIONAL SELF-DETERMINATION

• Difference between the nation and the state:

• "State" and "nation" are both contested concepts as there are
many different and inconsistent meanings to the terms, which
are in addition often confused with each other. Nationality is
often correlated with ethnic identity while state is often
correlated with civic organization; however, these descriptions
are not consistent.
CHAPTER 19: NATIONALISM, NATIONAL SELF-DETERMINATION

• Primordialism refers to the theory which determines that nations

are primary groups constituted by descent and/or culture,
accompanied by the idea that nationalism arises from a prior
sense of national identity.

• Primordialism suggests that nations are constituted by descent

and culture, and that this national identity creates nationalism.
Ethnic nationalism is a specific type of nationalism, which claims
that the nation is based on common factors many of which stem
from common descent.
CHAPTER 19: NATIONALISM, NATIONAL SELF-DETERMINATION

• Perennialism refers to the historical claim which argues that

there have been cases of nations and even nationalism before
the modern period.

• Perennialism is different from primordialism and ethno-

symbolism because it is presented as an empirical historical
claim rather than a theory about primary descent or culture or
the centrality of ethnic myths and memories.
CHAPTER 19: NATIONALISM, NATIONAL SELF-DETERMINATION

• British nationalism:
• It has been attributed to Christianity, parliamentary
institutions, and free trade.
• It was resisted by colonial areas.
• It can be characterized as state-strengthening, civic, and
elite.

• British nationalism was civically minded, elite-driven, and state-

strengthening. While the British attributed it to Christian values,
domestic institutions, and trade, the imposition of this
nationalism was resisted by parts of the British Empire in
complex historical interactions. See the India case study for an
CHAPTER 19: NATIONALISM, NATIONAL SELF-DETERMINATION

• In the 20th century, the following is a way in which war altered

nationalism:
• By giving rise to a fascist variant.
• By giving voice to the demands for self-determination.

• War in Europe arose in part from fragmentary processes set in

motion by destabilizing nationalism; the settlement of the First
World War attempted to give voice to the demands for national
self-determination but then enabled the rise of fascism, a non-
insular, aggressive form of nationalism.
CHAPTER 19: NATIONALISM, NATIONAL SELF-DETERMINATION

• German nationalism:
• Competed between ethnic nationalism and a liberal
constitutional form.
• Became increasingly state-strengthening over time.
• Was facilitated by industrialization.

• German nationalism emerged as ethnic nationalism, but as the

state industrialized in ways conducive to the development of
military power, it gradually emphasized state-strengthening
more and more.
CHAPTER 19: NATIONALISM, NATIONAL SELF-DETERMINATION

• Indian nationalism come from a complex hybrid of elite civic

nationalism, resistance to imperial Britain, and ethnically
fragmented national identities.

• Indian nationalism emerged from the legacy of British

colonialism as a form of elite civic nationalism but from its
inception had to wrestle with state-subverting ethnic
nationalisms as well.
CHAPTER 19: NATIONALISM, NATIONAL SELF-DETERMINATION

• Those entities "that claim to be national (however defined),

[that] are not challenged by powerful state-opposing nationalist
movements, and [which] are recognized internationally" are
called Nation-states

• Nation-states, which are both states and nations, derive their

claim to legitimacy in part from the representation of the
national identity and interest of the community over which the
state rules.
CHAPTER 19: NATIONALISM, NATIONAL SELF-DETERMINATION

• Results of the end of the cold war:

• It has led to discussion of forms of political community beyond
the nation-state.
• It has broken up some multi-national states in processes of
state subversion.
• It came hand in hand with globalization.

• Globalization and the cold war's end, in tandem, fragmented

some states along ethnic national lines and prompted discussion
of order based on supra-national political community.
CHAPTER 20: GLOBAL TRADE AND GLOBAL FINANCE

• Cross-border transactions refers to the movement across borders

of countries of goods, people, money, investments etc.

• Measuring increased cross-border transactions in terms of the

movements of goods, people, money, and investments across
borders is one way of conceiving of economic globalization.
CHAPTER 20: GLOBAL TRADE AND GLOBAL FINANCE

• The Great Transformation is the name of the famous book

published just before the end of the Second World War, by Karl
Polanyi.

• Just before the end of the Second World War, intellectual Karl
Polanyi published The Great Transformation, on the economic
causes of the European embrace of fascism in the 1930s. This
distinguished between two generic models of the market
economy: 'embedded' and 'disembedded' markets.
CHAPTER 20: GLOBAL TRADE AND GLOBAL FINANCE

• Countries that had their own East India Companies by the

eighteenth century.
• Britain.
• The Netherlands, Denmark and Portugal.
• France and Sweden.

• Britain, the Netherlands, Denmark, Portugal, France and Sweden

all had their own East India companies that allowed them to
operate the trading route centred on modern-day India.
CHAPTER 20: GLOBAL TRADE AND GLOBAL FINANCE

• When the housing market boom first began to unravel globally in

2007, banks discovered their over-exposure to 'Toxic assets' of
mortgage-backed securities

• Banks discovered their over-exposure to 'toxic assets' of

mortgage-backed securities.
CHAPTER 20: GLOBAL TRADE AND GLOBAL FINANCE

• 'The Quad' at the World Trade Organization (WTO) refers to the

decision-making structure within the WTO.

• Having over 150 members means that decision-making could be

a huge potential pitfall for the World Trade Organization. In order
to balance representation and efficiency four key groups actually
participate in the final stages of decision-making: the US, the EU,
Brazil and India. These four are known as 'the quad.'
CHAPTER 20: GLOBAL TRADE AND GLOBAL FINANCE

• Major public global governance agency for trade and finance:

• Group of 8 (G8)
• International Organization of Securities Commissions (IOSCO)

• The Group of 8 (G8) conducts semi-formal collaboration on world

economic problems; the International Organization of Securities
Commissions (IOSCO) aims to promote high standards of
regulation in stock and bond markets, surveillance of transborder
securities transactions and collaboration between securities
markets on detection of offences.
CHAPTER 20: GLOBAL TRADE AND GLOBAL FINANCE

• The response to the crisis conditions of the 1970s is a turn

against government intervention in the economy.

• The 1970s was a decade of crisis for rich industrialized

economies, such as the USA. Following this crisis-era,
governments responded by heavily reducing their intervention
into markets and adopting a far more 'laissez faire' approach.
This was most evident in the policies of, for example, Margaret
Thatcher and Ronald Reagan.
CHAPTER 20: GLOBAL TRADE AND GLOBAL FINANCE

• By how much did the value of the currency of Thailand, South

Korea, the Philippines and Malaysia fall during the Asian financial
crisis of 1997/1998?
• 30%.

• During the Asian Financial crisis of 1997/1998 Thailand, South

Korea, the Philippines and Malaysia saw the value of their
currencies fall by 30% meaning that people in these countries
were able to buy approximately two-thirds of the volume of
goods at world prices after the crisis as they had been able to
before.
CHAPTER 20: GLOBAL TRADE AND GLOBAL FINANCE

• Ways in which governments lure foreign investment:

• By relaxing labor and environmental standards.
• By reducing restrictions on repatriation of profits.

• Foreign investments are generally welcomed by states; hence

they create incentives and advantageous conditions of
production, such as relaxing labor and environmental standards
or the reduction of restrictions on the repatriation of profits.
CHAPTER 20: GLOBAL TRADE AND GLOBAL FINANCE

• Chronological events in global trade and finance:

• The first McDonalds
• Establishment of electronic stock exchange
• Formation of WTO

• The first McDonald's restaurant opened in 1955 (operating in 119

countries 50 years later); the electronic stock exchange (Nasdaq)
was established in 1971; and the WTO formed in 1995,
incorporating the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).
•
CHAPTER 21: POVERTY, HUNGER, AND DEVELOPMENT

• Has inequality between 20% of the world's richest and 20% of

the world's poorest changed?
• It has been increasing.

• While in 1960, the income ratio of 20% of the global population

in the richest countries to 20% in the poorest was been 30:1, it
had increased to 60:1 by 1990 and even further to 74:1 in 1997.
•
CHAPTER 21: POVERTY, HUNGER, AND DEVELOPMENT

• Millennium Development Goals:

• Set, time-limited development targets.
• Quantifiable targets across 8 areas of development.
• Aimed at eradication of extreme poverty and hunger by 2015.

• With the acceptance of the Millennium Development Goals by

the UN in 2000, time-limited and quantifiable development
targets in specified areas were set. The first and primary goal
was the eradication of extreme poverty and hunger, with the
target of halving the proportion of people living on less than a
dollar a day by 2015.
CHAPTER 21: POVERTY, HUNGER, AND DEVELOPMENT

• The "nature-focused" account of hunger means that there is not

enough food to go around.

• The "nature-focused" account is the mainstream account of

hunger, which is challenged by critical alternatives that argue
there is enough food. The problem is distribution and
entitlement.
CHAPTER 21: POVERTY, HUNGER, AND DEVELOPMENT

• According to critical alternative views, poverty refers to a

monetary and non-monetary condition where people lack access
to community regulated common resources, opportunities and
income.

• Where as the orthodox view on poverty claims that it refers to a

situation where people do not have the money to satisfy their
basic needs, alternative views emphasize not simply money, but
spiritual values, community ties, and availability of common
resources.
CHAPTER 21: POVERTY, HUNGER, AND DEVELOPMENT

• Embedded liberalism refers to the liberal international economic

order based on free trade but with a role for state intervention in
issues of national security and stability.

• Embedded liberalism refers to a liberal international economic

order promoting free trade but allowing an appropriate role for
state intervention in the market in support of national security
and national and global stability.
CHAPTER 21: POVERTY, HUNGER, AND DEVELOPMENT

• The orthodox view of development assumes that economic

growth can be unlimited through the free market and will trickle
down to the poor.

• Development is a contested concept; an orthodox perspective

refers to it as a "top down" process in a free-market system that
will ultimately benefit everyone.
CHAPTER 21: POVERTY, HUNGER, AND DEVELOPMENT

• The New International Economic Order is an unsuccessful

campaign for reforms made by developing countries in the
1970s.

• In the 1970s, mainly developing countries proposed (without

success) the NIEO that should reform the existing order to be
more user friendly for the producers of primary commodities
through such mechanisms as index-linking the prices of primary
products to the prices of manufactured goods.
CHAPTER 21: POVERTY, HUNGER, AND DEVELOPMENT

• “Trickle down effect“ means that economic growth will

eventually (and automatically) bring benefits to the poor.

• The "trickle-down effect" describes the idea that overall

economic growth would automatically bring benefits for the
poorer classes. However, despite impressive rates of growth
enjoyed by developing countries this success was not reflected
in their societies at large.
CHAPTER 21: POVERTY, HUNGER, AND DEVELOPMENT

• The Brundtland Commission refers to the world commission on

environment and development.

• The Brundtland Commission was officially called the World

Commission on Environment and Development. It mainly
influenced the discussion about the concept of sustainable
development.
CHAPTER 21: POVERTY, HUNGER, AND DEVELOPMENT

• Dependency theorists believes that free-market development

primarily helps the rich.

• Dependency theorists see the current predicament of the Third

World as predictable, arguing that export-oriented, free-market
development promoted in the Third World has increased the
wealth of the West and of Southern elites. This argument is
embedded in notions of a global divide.
CHAPTER 22: HUMAN SECURITY

• According to the 'freedom from fear' understanding, the core of

human security is embodied in:
• The UN Charter.
• The Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
• The Geneva Conventions.

• As articulated by former Canadian External Affairs Minister Lloyd

Axworthy, the UN Charter, the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights and the Geneva Conventions, are the "core elements" of
the doctrine of human security.
CHAPTER 22: HUMAN SECURITY

• Measures to prevent the use of child soldiers is an example of

'freedom from fear‘.

• Human security, if defined as 'freedom from fear', could include

measures such as a ban on land-mines, formation of an
International Criminal Court, human rights, international
humanitarian law, women and children in armed conflict, small
arms proliferation, child soldiers, and child labor.
CHAPTER 22: HUMAN SECURITY

• ‘Freedom from want‘:

• It stresses individual escape from poverty, disease, and
environmental threats.
• It focuses heavily on security.

• As advocated by the Director-General of the Foreign Ministry of

Japan, freedom from want is closer to the original UNDP
conception, and stresses the ability of individuals and societies
to be free from a broad range of non-military threats, such as
poverty, disease, and environmental degradation.
CHAPTER 22: HUMAN SECURITY

• Human development is termed as a 'capability-oriented

approach to development', which seeks to expand the range of
things that people can do.

• Human development, according to Mahabub ul Haque, seeks to

expand "the range of things that people can do, and what they
can be....The most basic capabilities for human development are
leading a long and healthy life, being educated and having
adequate resources for a decent standard of living...[and] social
and political participation in society."
CHAPTER 22: HUMAN SECURITY

• Key arguments made by critics of human security:

• The concept is too broad to be analytically useful.
• That it creates false expectations of assistance which cannot
be met.
• That it marginalizes or weakens the state's role in security.

• The critics of human security argue that by making the individual

rather than the state the referent object, the concept becomes
so broad that it cannot be used either for analysis or policy; that
it creates expectations by victims of disaster and violence that
more aid will ensue than is actually forthcoming, and that we
would be better off to focus on analyzing the state and
CHAPTER 22: HUMAN SECURITY

• Humanitarian intervention justifies the use of force and breach of

sovereignty based on human security grounds.

• Humanitarian intervention bases its justification for intervention

on human security grounds, though still acknowledges the
importance of sovereignty and its potential tension with human
rights claims.
CHAPTER 22: HUMAN SECURITY

• The UN Human Development Report included the following

aspects:
• Food and economic security.
• Economic and environmental security.
• Community and personal security.

• The Human Development Report referred to food, environment,

health, economic, community, personal, and political security.
CHAPTER 22: HUMAN SECURITY

• "The arms race and development are in a competitive

relationship":
• The quotation illustrates the guns-versus-butter trade-off.
• The quotation is the conclusion of a Swedish study.

• The quote above comes from the Swedish study by Inga

Thorsson et al. examining concerns over the so-called "guns
versus butter" debate, or the negative impact of defense
spending on development aid.
CHAPTER 22: HUMAN SECURITY

• The contemporary apparent decline in battle deaths come from:

• Rising economic interdependence.
• The end of colonialism and cold war.
• The growing role of international institutions and community
(peace operations).

• Scholars have variously argued that increased trade links

decrease interstate violence, that the end of colonialism and the
cold war has created a zone of peace (or the "end of history")
and that peace operations and international institutions have
helped to foster stability.
CHAPTER 22: HUMAN SECURITY

• Politicide refers to the term that describes destroying groups

because of their political beliefs rather than their religion or
identity?

• As opposed to genocide, politicide seeks the destruction of a

specific group based on political ideals rather than ethnic or
religious grounds.
CHAPTER 23: HUMAN RIGHTS

• The immediate purpose of the Commission on Human Rights is

to draft the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

• The Charter of the United Nations, signed in San Francisco on 26

June 1945, identified promoting respect for human rights as one
of the principal objectives of the new organization. It also
created a Commission on Human Rights, which became the focal
point of what we today call the global human rights regime.
CHAPTER 23: HUMAN RIGHTS

• The International Bill of Human Rights provides an authoritative

list of universal human rights covering civil, political, economic,
social and cultural rights.

• The International Bill of Human Rights provides an authoritative

list of interdependent, indivisible, and universal human rights,
covering a wide range of civil, political, economic, social and
cultural rights.
CHAPTER 23: HUMAN RIGHTS

• In the mid-1970s human rights began to emerge from its Cold

War slumber as an active concern of national foreign policies.
CHAPTER 23: HUMAN RIGHTS

• When can we date transnational NGOs back to?

• The nineteenth century and anti-slavery campaigners

• At the very least transnational NGOs date back to the nineteenth

century and anti-slavery campaigners.
CHAPTER 23: HUMAN RIGHTS

• Liberal position on rights:

• The liberal position on rights privileges freedoms over rights.
• *The liberal position on rights says that the primary function
of government is to protect the rights to life, liberty and
property.

• The liberal position on rights is made up of two basic

components. First, that human beings possess the rights to life,
liberty, the secure possession of property and the freedom of
speech, which are inalienable and unconditional. Second, that
the primary function of government is to protect these rights.
CHAPTER 23: HUMAN RIGHTS

• Greek, Christian and medieval Catholic theology are the origins

of natural law thinking.

• The idea of natural law implies that universal moral standards

exist upon which the rights that individuals have are based.
Rights thus are not limited in application to any particular legal
system. Its origins can be traced to the classical Greek and early
Christians, but in its modern form it is based on medieval
Catholic theology.
CHAPTER 23: HUMAN RIGHTS

• What does the UN Charter say about human rights?

• It reaffirms faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity
and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men
and women and of nations large and small.

• The Universal Declaration of Human Rights by the UN General

Assembly in 1948 defined a comprehensive code for the internal
government of its members. It asserted a universal position in
that all human beings are equal and have equal rights.
CHAPTER 23: HUMAN RIGHTS

• Members of the Council of Europe are subject to which legally

binding judgements?
• Those of the effective European Court of Human Rights.

• Member countries of the Council of Europe, which is wider than

the European Union, are subject to the legal judgements of the
very effective European Court of Human Rights.
CHAPTER 23: HUMAN RIGHTS

• Most countries celebrate Human Rights Day on 10th of December.

• On 10 December 1948 the General Assembly of the United

Nations adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and
most countries, therefore, celebrate this day as Human Rights
Day.
CHAPTER 23: HUMAN RIGHTS

• Governments cannot legitimately deny obligations that they

have voluntarily incurred by becoming parties to international
human rights treaties. Authoritative international human rights
norms thus allow local human rights advocates to focus on how
to protect and implement human rights, rather than debate
whether the rights in question really are rights. .
CHAPTER 24: HUMAN INTERVENTION IN WORLD POLITICS

• “Forcible humanitarian intervention“ refers to a forcible breach of

sovereignty that interferes in a state's internal affairs for
humanitarian purposes.

• The term "forcible humanitarian intervention" attempts to

describe the tension between an illegitimate use of force and
breach of sovereignty of a state and a possible legal right of
intervention for humanitarian purposes. Its legality is a matter of
dispute between restrictionists (contra) and counter-
restrictionists (pro).
CHAPTER 24: HUMAN INTERVENTION IN WORLD POLITICS

• Objections to legitimizing humanitarian intervention:

• Legitimizing it would open intervention to abuse.
• States do not intervene for primarily humanitarian reasons.
• States apply principles of humanitarian intervention
selectively.

• Realism tells us that states only pursue their national interest

and legitimate humanitarian intervention is thus ruled out, since
states only judge according to their interests. Another key realist
argument is that such an exception to the ban on the use of
force in Art 2(4) UN Charter will lead to abuse.
CHAPTER 24: HUMAN INTERVENTION IN WORLD POLITICS

• “Pluralist international society“ refers to an international society

in which states are aware of sharing common values, but these
are limited to disagreement as to what constitutes extreme
human rights violations.

• Bull defined the pluralist conception of international society as

one in which states are capable of agreement only for certain
minimum purposes such as recognition of each state's
sovereignty and respect for the rule of non-intervention.
CHAPTER 24: HUMAN INTERVENTION IN WORLD POLITICS

• “Solidarist international society“ is an international society in

which states agree on universal standards of justice and
morality.

• In contrast to pluralism, solidarism argues that states have a

legal right and moral duty to intervene in situations that offend
minimum standards of humanity. States can do so as they agree
on universal standards of justice and morality that legitimize
practices of humanitarian intervention.
CHAPTER 24: HUMAN INTERVENTION IN WORLD POLITICS

• Fernando Teson puts forward a liberal case for Iraq being a

humanitarian intervention?

• Among others, Fernando Teson takes a liberal stance in arguing

that the Iraq war was a humanitarian intervention.
CHAPTER 24: HUMAN INTERVENTION IN WORLD POLITICS

• The Responsibility to Protect has three pillars: responsibility of

the state to protect its population; responsibility of the
international community to assist the state in protecting its
population; responsibility of international community to act if the
state does not fulfil its obligations towards its citizens.
CHAPTER 24: HUMAN INTERVENTION IN WORLD POLITICS

• Non-forcible humanitarian intervention is characterized by the

series of peaceful actions of states, INGOs and international
organizations in the international scene which prove to have an
impact on internal matters of the target state.

• Non-forcible intervention emphasizes the activities of a diverse

set of international actors, not only states, in delivering
humanitarian aid and facilitating third party conflict resolution
and reconstruction. An example is activities by Medicins Sans
Frontieres (MSF).
CHAPTER 24: HUMAN INTERVENTION IN WORLD POLITICS

• Loud emergencies are the humanitarian crises that receive

media attentions, like genocide, ethnic cleansing and famine.
• Silent emergencies do not get media attention, like slow death
from malnutrition and poverty.

• This refers to the unresolved normative questions of what counts

as human suffering at the start of the 21st century. 'Loud
emergencies' receive media attention and normally command
the resources of the international donor community, whereas
silent emergencies remain largely unrecognized.
CHAPTER 24: HUMAN INTERVENTION IN WORLD POLITICS

• What would warrant a "just cause" military intervention for

human protection purposes?
• There must be serious and irreparable harm occurring to human beings, or
imminently likely to occur.
• There must be a large scale loss of life, which is the product of deliberate
state action, or state neglect, or inability to act, or a failed state situation.
• There must be a large scale ethnic cleansing.

• The "just cause" threshold is one of the specific criteria set out
by the report "The Responsibility to Protect" by the International
Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty. Military
intervention is treated as an exceptional measure and must be
justified by serious or irreparable harm, defined as large-scale
CHAPTER 24: HUMAN INTERVENTION IN WORLD POLITICS

• Military humanitarian intervention secure its greatest

legitimation when it is done through the Chapter VII enforcement
provisions of the Security Council.

• The enforcement provisions in Chapter VII allow the Security

Council to authorize military action in cases where it finds a
threat to international peace and security. Those rules can be
reasonably stretched to legitimate armed intervention in cases of
genocide or mass killings.
REFERENCE

Owens, P., Baylis, J., & Smith S. (2017). The Globalization of World
Politics: An Introduction to International Relations (7th ed).
England: Oxford University Press.
“A great deal of world politics is a
fundamental struggle, but it is also a
struggle that has to be waged
intelligently.” ― Zbigniew Brzezinski
GOD BLESS!!!