SIGNALS & SYSTEMS

(ENT 281)

Chapter 1 (Part 2):

Signals & Systems Modelling Concepts

DR. HASIMAH ALI

SCHOOL OF MECHATRONIC ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA PERLIS
1. Combination of time shifting and time scaling:
y (t )  x(at  b) (1.28)
y (0)  x(b) (1.29)
b (1.30)
y ( )  x(0)
a
2. Operation order:To achieve Eq. (1.28),

1st step: time shifting v(t )  x(t  b)

2nd step: time scaling y(t )  v(at )  x(at  b)

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 Ex. 1 Precedence Rule for Continuous-Time Signal

Consider the rectangular pulse x(t) depicted in Fig (a). Find

y(t)=x(2t + 3).

Signals_and_Systems_Simon Haykin & Barry Van Veen 3

 Case 1: Fig. 1-24.  Shifting first, then scaling

The proper order in which the operations of time scaling and time
shifting:
(a) Rectangular pulse x(t) of amplitude 1.0 and duration 2.0,
symmetric about the origin.
(b) Intermediate pulse v(t), representing a time-shifted version of
x(t).
(c) Desired signal y(t), resulting from the compression of v(t) by a
factor of 2. 4
Case 2:.  Scaling first, then shifting

The incorrect way of applying the precedence rule. (a) Signal x(t).
(b) Time-scaled signal v(t) = x(2t). (c) Signal y(t) obtained by shifting
v(t) = x(2t) by 3 time units, which yields y(t) = x(2(t + 3)).

Case 1:  Shifting first, then scaling

Case 2:.  Scaling first, then shifting
y(t )  v(t  3)  x(2(t  3))  x(2t  3)
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Ex. Precedence Rule for Discrete-Time Signal

A discrete-time signal is defined by

 1, n  1,2

x[n]   1, n  1, 2
 0, n  0 and | n | 2


Find y[n] = x[2x + 3].

Signals_and_Systems_Simon Haykin & Barry Van Veen 6

 Sol.

The proper order of applying the operations of time scaling and time shifting.
(a) Discrete-time signal x[n], antisymmetric about the origin.
(b) Intermediate signal v(n) obtained by shifting x[n] to the left by 3 samples.
(c) Discrete-time signal y[n] resulting from the compression of v[n] by a factor of 2, as a
result of which two samples of the original x[n], located at n = –2, +2, are lost.
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Ex. A CT signal is shown in Figure below, sketch and label of this signal.
a) x(t-1)
b) x(2t)
c) x(-t)

Signals_and_Systems_Simon Haykin & Barry Van Veen 8

Solution:

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Exercise:

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Exercise:

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The signals appear naturally in a wide class of physical systems.
They serve as basic building blocks for the construction of more
complex signal.
-The Unit Step Function
-The Ramp Function
-The unit Impulse Function
-Exponential signals
-Sinusoidal Signals

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The continuous-time version of the unit-step defined by:

u(t ) 1, t  0
0, t  0

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Example 1:
The rectangular pulse signal shown in Figure below is the result of an on-
off switching operation of a constant voltage source in an electric circuit.
In general, a rectangular pulse that extends from –a to +a and has
magnitude A can be written as a difference between appropriately
shifted step function, i.e.,
𝑡
𝐴 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 = 𝐴[𝑢 𝑡 + 𝑎 − 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑎 ]
2𝑎
In this specific example,
𝑡
2 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 = 2[𝑢 𝑡 + 1 − 𝑢 𝑡 − 1 ]
2

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Example 2:
Consider the signum function (written sgn) shown in figure below. The unit
sgn function is defined by
1, 𝑡>0
sgn 𝑡 = ቐ 0, 𝑡=0
−1, 𝑡<0
The signum function can be expressed in terms of unit the unit step
function as,
𝑠𝑔𝑛 𝑡 = −1 + 2𝑢(𝑡)

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The discrete-time version of the unit-step defined by:

u[n ]   1, n  0
0, n  0

x[n]

n
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4

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• The continuous-time ramp function is defined as:
 t, t  0
r (t )   or
r (t )  tu (t )
0, t  0

Ramp function of unit slope.

• The ramp function is obtained by integrating the unit step

function:
𝑡
‫׬‬−∞ 𝑢 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑟(𝑡)
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• Let
x t = u t + 2 − 2𝑢 𝑡 + 1 + 2𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑢 𝑡 − 2 − 2𝑢 𝑡 − 3 + 2𝑢(𝑡 − 4).
Let y(t) denote its integral. Then
y t = r t + 2 − 2𝑟 𝑡 + 1 + 2𝑟 𝑡 − 𝑟 𝑡 − 2 − 2𝑟 𝑡 − 3 + 2𝑟(𝑡 − 4)
Signal y(t) is sketched in Figure below:

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• The discrete-time ramp function is defined as:
n, n  0
r[n]   or r[n]  nu[n]
0, n  0

x[n]

n
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4

Discrete-time version of the ramp function.

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The discrete-time unit impulse function, also called unit
sample sequence, is defined as:


 [ n] 
1, n  0
0, n  0

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The continuous-time unit impulse function δ(t), also called Dirac delta
function. It is defined by:

 (t )  0 for t  0 and



 (t )dt  1

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• As the duration decreases, the rectangular pulse approximates the
impulse more closely.
• Mathematical relation between impulse and rectangular pulse
function:
 (t )  lim x (t ) 1. x(t): even function of t,  = duration.
0 2. x(t): Unit area.

(t) a(t)
Figure 1.41 (p. 46)
Discrete-time form of impulse.

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• (t) is the derivative of u(t):

• u(t) is the integral of (t):

t
u(t )    ( )d


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• Properties of continuous-time unit impulse function

1. Even function:  (t )   (t )

2. Sifting property: 

x(t ) (t  t0 )dt  x(t0 )

3. Time-scaling property:

1
 (at )   (t ), a  0
a

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A CT real exponential signal has the general formula as:
B and a are real parameters
x(t )  Beat

• The parameter B is the amplitude of exponential measures at t = 0.

• For a = 0, the signal x(t) is constant amplitude for all times.
• For a > 0, the signal is a growing exponential signal
• For a < 0, the signal x(t) is a decaying exponential signal

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1.Decaying exponential, for which a < 0
2.Growing exponential, for which a > 0

(a) Decaying exponential form of continuous-time signal. (b) Growing

exponential form of continuous-time signal. 26
 Ex. Lossy capacitor:
KVL Eq.:
d
RC v(t )  v(t )  0 (1.32)
dt
RC = Time constant
v(t )  V0 e t /( RC ) (1.33) Lossy capacitor, with the
loss represented by
Discrete-time case: shunt resistance R.

x[n]  Br n (1.34)
where

r  e 27
(a) Decaying exponential form of discrete-time signal.
(b) Growing exponential form of discrete-time signal.

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◆ Continuous-time case:
x(t )  A cos(t   ) (1.35)

where periodicity
x(t  T )  A cos( (t  T )   )
2
T  A cos(t  T   )
  A cos(t  2   )
 A cos(t   )
 x (t )

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(a) Sinusoidal signal A cos( t + Φ) with phase Φ = +/6 radians.
(b) Sinusoidal signal A sin ( t + Φ) with phase Φ = +/6 radians.
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Ex. Generation of a sinusoidal signal
Circuit Eq.:
2
d
LC 2 v(t )  v(t )  0 (1.36)
dt

v(t )  V0 cos(0t ), t  0 (1.37)

where Parallel LC circuit,

assuming that
1 the inductor L
0  (1.38) and capacitor C
LC Natural angular are both ideal.
frequency of oscillation
of the circuit 31
◆ Discrete-time case :

x[n]  A cos(n   ) (1.39)

Periodic condition: x[n  N ]  A cos(n  N   ) (1.40)

2 m
N  2 m or   radians/cycle, integer m, N (1.41)
N

Ex. A discrete-time sinusoidal signal: A = 1,  = 0, and N = 12.

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Ex. A discrete-time sinusoidal signal: A = 1,  = 0, and N = 12.

Discrete-time sinusoidal signal.

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Example 1.7 Discrete-Time Sinusoidal Signal

A pair of sinusoidal signals with a common angular frequency

is defined by

x1[n]  sin[5 n] and x2 [n]  3 cos[5 n]

(a)Both x1[n] and x2[n] are periodic. Find their common fundamental
period.
(b)Express the composite sinusoidal signal

y[n]  x1[n]  x2[n]

In the form y[n] = Acos(n + ), and evaluate the amplitude A
and phase .
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 <Sol.>

(a) Angular frequency of both x1[n] and x2[n]:

2 m 2 m 2m
  5 radians/cycle N  
 5 5
This can be only for m = 5, 10, 15, …, which results in N = 2, 4,
6, …
(b) Trigonometric identity:
A cos(n   )  A cos(n)cos( )  Asin(n)sin( )
Let  = 5, then compare x1[n] + x2[n] with the above equation to obtain
that

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 A sin( )  1 and A cos( )  3
sin( ) amplitude of x1[ n] 1
tan( )    =/6
cos( ) amplitude of x2 [n] 3
A sin( )  1

1
A 2 Accordingly, we may express y[n] as
sin   / 6 

 
y[n]  2cos  5 n  
 6

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Consider the complex exponential 𝒆𝒋𝜽 . Using Euler’s identity:

e j  cos  j sin 
Complex exponential signal: Be j t

B  Ae j  Ae j e j t
 Ae j (  t )
x(t )  A cos(t   )  A cos( t   )  jA sin( t   )

A cos(t   )  Re{Be jt }

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1. Continuous-time signal in terms of sine function:

x(t )  A sin(t   )
A sin(t   )  Im{Be jt }

2. Discrete-time case:

A cos(n   )  Re{Be jn } and

A sin(n   )  Im{Be jn

}
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3. Two-dimensional representation of the complex
exponential e j  n for  = /4 and n = 0, 1, 2, …, 7.

Projection on real axis: cos(n);

Projection on imaginary axis: sin(n)
 /4
Complex plane, showing eight points  / 4
uniformly distributed on the unit
circle.

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 Simon Haykin and Barry Van Veen, “Signals and
Systems”, Wiley, 2nd Edition, 2002
 John G. Proakis and Masoud Salehi,“Fundamentals of
Communication Systems”, Prentice- Hall, 2005.
 Charles L. Phillips, John M. Parr, Eve A. Riskin;
“Signals, Systems and Transforms”, Prentice Hall,
Fourth Edition, 2009
 M.J. Roberts, “Signals and Systems”, International
Edition, McGraw Hill, 2nd Edition 2012