INFORMATION

PROCESSING
1. NUR IZZATI BT SUARDI (180688)
2. TAN SIN YEE (179676)
3. MOHAMAD JAMALUDIN RABANI BIN M.
HANAFIAH
4. NG CHIN LU (178723)
5. KHAIRUL ABQARIIYAH BT SHUHARDI
(179540)
 CONTENT
1.0 INTRODUCTION
• 1.1 OVERVIEW OF INFORMATION PROCESSING
2.0 MAJOR THEORIES ON INFORMATION PROCESSING
• 2.1. STAGE MODEL
• 2.2 LEVELS-OF-PROCESSING THEORY
• 2.3 PARALLEL DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING THEORY (PDP)
• 2.4 CONNECTIONISTIC MODELS
3.0 SENSORY INFORMATION PROCESSING
• 3.1 AUDITORY INFORMATION PROCESSING
• 3.2 VISUAL INFORMATION PROCESSING
4.0 ATTENTION
• 4.1 DIVIDED ATTENTION
• 4.2 AUTOMATICITY PROCESSING
5.0 HUMAN ERROR
• 5.1 WHY WE MAKE ERROR?
 1.0 INTRODUCTION
Information Processing
• The change of information detected by the observer.
 Involved transformation of unknown sensory
information from surrounding into
understandable form.
• Also referred as Thinking, which involves activities
such as perceiving, encoding, representing and
storing stimulus information, as well as retrieving the
information.
 1.0 INTRODUCTION

BRAIN AND COMPUTER

Many views brain similar to computer
• A system that process information through
application of logical rules and strategies.
• Has limitation on how much and at what
rate new information can be encoded,
stored and retrieved.
 1.1 OVERVIEW OF INFORMATION
PROCESSING
1. INFORMATION PROCESSING SYSTEM (BROADBENT, 1958)
Consist of 3 main stage; input, storage, output.
1. Input: analysis of stimulus information received from
the surrounding
• main information forms are the visual and auditory
information
2. Storage: activities included when the stimulus
information received are being processed.
• involves activities such as encoding and manipulation of
stimuli
 1.1 OVERVIEW OF INFORMATION PROCESSING

1. INFORMATION PROCESSING SYSTEM (BROADBENT, 1958)

(CONT)

3. Output: outcome of the activities or the

process involved in preparing appropriate
response to a stimulus
• Memories are retrieved when needed, such as in
situations like thinking and problem solving
 1.1 OVERVIEW OF INFORMATION PROCESSING

2. THEORY OF INFORMATION PROCESSING

Involves 4 stage
1. Attending
2. Encoding
3. Storage
4. Retrieval
 THEORY OF INFORMATION PROCESSING

STAGE 1: ATTENDING
• Encompassed activities where we pay attention
to certain things that we wanted to hear or see
or notice and take in the sensory information
• We are selective in attending information

• We choose which information to be attend by

paying attention: limitations in our perceptual
processing and response generation: to attend
to one this is to not attend to others.
• Important because not paying attention means we
cannot pick up the information and will cause the
information to loss.
 THEORY OF INFORMATION PROCESSING

STAGE 2: ENCODING
• Encoding: Process where information attended
earlier are translated into a form that can be
processed mentally.
• It allows the perceived information to be converted
into a construct that can be stored within the brain.
• 3 Main category of information:
1. visual (picture),
2. acoustic (sound)
3. semantic (meaning)
* May come alone or together with other categories
 THEORY OF INFORMATION PROCESSING

STAGE 2: ENCODING
Ways of Encoding
1. Automatic processing: Occurs when we
process without aware that we’re actually
encoding the information into our memory
2. Effortful processing: Occur when we
consciously try to remember the
information
• May include effort such as paying attention,
thought and practice.
 THEORY OF INFORMATION PROCESSING
STAGE 2: ENCODING
Strategies to optimize encoding
1. Level of Processing - Refers to how deep we go in
analysing something.
• Whether we just take the information as it is or we
elaborate it in the process.
• Elaboration or going deeper is better as it help to
have better understanding and memorizing.
• Elaboration may include
 organizing of information and understanding instead of just
memorizing,
 thinking how it applies to real world
 relating it to already known concepts or knowledge
(schema activation).
 THEORY OF INFORMATION PROCESSING

STAGE 2: ENCODING
Strategies to optimize encoding (cont)
2. Chungking- Refers to breaking large information into
smaller units (chunks), memorizing the units, and then
remembering it in the sequence to create the full meaning.
3. Imagery - Representing the information in form of
image/objects.
4. Mnemonics – Organizing information and associate
with something more easy or meaningful to allow better
retention of information by the brain.
• Can be in form of words, rhythm, visual, kinesthetic
form.
• Example: Acronyms, knuckle mnemonic, peg-word
system,
 THEORY OF INFORMATION PROCESSING

STAGE 2: ENCODING
Strategies to optimize encoding (cont)
5. Rehearsal - involves repetition of
information
• Maintenance rehearsal – simple rote repetition of
information over and over without altering its form.
• Elaboration rehearsal – Repeat, but also focus on
the meaning of information or expanding it some
ways.
 THEORY OF INFORMATION PROCESSING

STAGE 3: STORAGE
Encoded information stored in the brain as memory and
will be used in later processing.
Memory: retention of learned material
3 type of memory
1. Sensory register (fleeting information
2. Short term memory (temporarily stored)
3. Long term memory (permanently stored).
 New information can be stored as new aspect or can be an
elaboration or replacement (correction) of existing
memories
 THEORY OF INFORMATION PROCESSING

STAGE 3: STORAGE
Working memory: a system within the cognition that is
responsible for holding information temporarily for
immediate use of processing or manipulation.
• Part of long term memory
• Different from short term memory: it allows the
manipulation of information by hooking into existing
item in the long term memory instead of just storing
the information
• Important for reasoning and as guidance of decision
making.
• Aids in the elaboration process
 THEORY OF INFORMATION PROCESSING

STAGE 4. RETRIEVAL
Retrieval: Information is accessed from the long term
memory where we will recalled the information stored
and returning it to the conscious mind
Two main retrieving methods
1. Recall : When we retrieved the memory such as
fact, event or other information that is not
physically present at current time.
• For example, when people ask question, then we
must search our memory to recall the answer, or
when we try to recall our shopping list
 THEORY OF INFORMATION PROCESSING

STAGE 4: RETRIEVAL
Two main retrieving methods (cont.)
2. Recognition/Identification: The association of
something (can be new or similar information) with
something previously experienced (information
stored in long term memory).
• It involves comparing of information of existing
memory with something we currently see,
where the recognition acts as a response to the
sensory cue.
• For example, recognizing a person we met
before at a bookstore.
 2.0 MAJOR THEORIES ON
INFORMATION PROCESSING
 1. STAGE MODEL (ATKINSON AND SHRIFFIN)
multistore model of memory (also = the modal model)
memory consisted of three stores:

Sensory Short Term Long Term

Memory Memory Memory
• Duration: ¼ • Duration: 0- • Duration:
to ½ second 18 seconds Unlimited
• Capacity: all • Capacity: 7 • Capacity:
sensory +/- 2 items Unlimited
experience • Encoding: • Encoding:
(v. larger mainly Mainly
capacity) auditory Semantic
• Encoding: (but can be
sense visual and
specific auditory)
 2. LEVELS-OF-PROCESSING THEORY
CRAIK AND LOCKHART (1972)

Non-structured approach - A framework of various levels of processing

of a stimulus.
Key assumptions:
• Level / depth of processing of a stimulus → large effect on its
memorability.
• Deeper analysis → more elaborate, longer lasting and stronger
memory traces.
• All stimuli that activate a sensory receptor cell are permanently
stored in memory.
• The issue is not storage, but retrieval
In simple words: “The deeper the level of processing, the easier the
information is to recall.”
2. LEVELS-OF-PROCESSING THEORY
CRAIK AND LOCKHART (1972)
• Kind of elaboration • Distinctive memory
+ Amount → Long traces will be more
term memory readily retrieved
• Distinctive condition
words→ better
recognized

Elaboration Distinctiveness
 3. Parallel Distributed Processing Theory
• Memories are stored and retrieved in a system consisting of a large
number of simple computational elements, all working at the
same time and all contributing to the outcome
• McClelland (1981) presented a PDP model that illustrates the
properties of access by content, filling in of gaps, and
generalization.
• 3 basic principles:
• The representation of information is distributed (not local)
• Memory and knowledge for specific things are not stored
explicitly, but stored in the connections between units.
• Learning can occur with gradual changes in connection strength
by experience.
• Information is processed simultaneously by several different parts
of the memory system, rather than sequentially as hypothesized by
Atkinson-Shiffrin.
 4. Connectionistic models
(Rumelhart and McClelland,1986)
• Extends the parallel-distributed processing model
• Information is stored in multiple locations throughout the brain -
networks of connections (Analogous to a network of
biological neurons)
• Consistent with the levels-of-processing approach :
↑connections to a single idea or concept (eg: ↑ elaboration is
used), ↑remember.
• Made up of many simple processing units, they are
interconnected and able to send signals to each other. No
individual processing unit hold a meaningful concept.
• √ map input patterns into output patterns:
• Input: sight of a furry tail + sound of a bark → Output: concept
of dog
3.0 SENSORY
INFORMATION
PROCESSING
3.0 AUDIOTARY AND VISUAL INFORMATION
PROCESSING
• Visual and auditory processing are the
processes of recognizing and interpreting
information taken in through the senses of
sight and sound.
• The terms, "visual and auditory processing"
and "visual and auditory perception", are often
used interchangeably.
3.1 AUDITORY INFORMATION PROCESSING
Auditory processing is a natural process of
sound that through the ear then travel to the
language area of the brain to interpreted.

Divided into 3 parts

:
- Outer ear
- Middle ear
- Inner Ear
• Outer ear- consists of the ear canal and eardrum. Sound
travels down the ear canal, striking the eardrum and
causing it to move or vibrate.
• Middle ear is a space behind the eardrum that contains
three small bones called ossicles. This chain of tiny
bones is connected to the eardrum at one end and to an
opening to the inner ear at the other end. Vibrations
from the eardrum cause the ossicles to vibrate which, in
turn, creates movement of the fluid in the inner ear.
• Inner ear or cochlea, causes changes in tiny structures
called hair cells. This movement of the hair cells sends
electric signals from the inner ear up the auditory nerve
to the brain
• The brain then interprets these electrical signals as
sound.
 3.1 AUDITORY INFORMATION PROCESSING
• Many small neurons located in the brain are responsible for
the processing of auditory information. The signals are
decoded into sounds that we are familiar with and make sense
to us.
• In the auditory brain, several groups of neurons receive the
impulses and translate them into a language that our brain
understands. This translation occurs in order to cause a
conscious perception of the sounds that we receive. The brain
then interprets these electrical signals as sound.
• The primary auditory cortex is the part of the temporal lobe
that processes auditory information in humans and other
vertebrates. It is a part of the auditory system, performing
basic and higher functions in hearing
 3.1 AUDITORY
INFORMATION
PROCESSING
Sounds create visual imagery, mental images, and automatic
projections.

For example, if you are in the street and you hear the sound
of an approaching motorbike, you expect to see A motorbike
coming around the corner. If it turned out to be A horse, you
will be very surprised.” (Lars muckli, 2014)

in fact, this brain region utilizes sound to predict the images

the eyes are about to see and hear.
 2. Visual Information Processing
• VIP is the ability to interpret what is seen.
• It is vision that directs action
• Good visual information processing means being
able to quickly and accurately
• process and analyse what is being seen,
• store it in visual memory for later recall.
• Vision begins with light passing through the cornea and the lens,
which combine to produce a clear image of the visual world on a
sheet of photoreceptors called the retina.
• As in a camera, the image on the retina is reversed: Objects above
the center project to the lower part and vice versa.
• The information from the retina — in the form of electrical signals
— is sent via the optic nerve to other parts of the brain, which
ultimately process the image and allow us to see.
 2. VISUAL INFORMATION PROCESSING

• The cells convert light into electrochemical

signals and the retina contains two kinds of
photoreceptor neurons, known as rods and
cones.
• Rod cells are responsible for our night vision,
and respond well to dim light.
• Cone cells are concentrated in a central region
of the retina called the fovea; they are
responsible for high ability tasks like reading,
and also for color vision.
 HUMAN VISION
• Human vision is one of the most complex visual systems
among animals.
• The main sensory organ of the visual system is the eye,
which takes in the physical stimuli of light rays and
transduces them into electrical and chemical signals that
can be interpreted by the brain to construct physical
images.
• The eye has three main layers: the sclera, which includes
the cornea. 2. The choroid, which includes the pupil, iris,
and lens; and 3. The retina, which includes receptor cells
called rods and cones.
• The human visual system is capable of complex
color perception, which is initiated by cones in the retina
and completed by impulse integration in the brain.
4.0 ATTENTION
 A concept studied in cognitive
psychology that refers to how we
actively process specific information
present in our environment.
 The cognitive process of selectively
concentrating on one aspect of the
environment while ignoring other
things.

37
 According to William James,
 “attention is the taking possession of the mind, in
clear form, and one may seem several
simultaneously possible objects. It implies
withdrawal from something in order to deal
effectively with others”.

 Attention as a highlighter, i.e. as you read through a

section of text in a book, the highlighted section
stands out, causing you to focus on that area.

38
 DIVIDED AUTOMATICITY
ATTENTION PROCESSING
 The condition of paying attention
to more than one stimulus or to a
stimulus presented in more than one
form.
The process by which an individual
can perform multiple tasks at the
same time.
 An individual attention can be
divided between two:
• Visual task
• Verbal task 41
 Why a person can pay
simultaneous attention on
both visual and verbal tasks?
enough practice (often do it)
.

Divide attention automatically

(acquire a high degree of
automaticity)

 Our brain has the ability to pay

attention to selected aspect of the
environment and divide the attention
between tasks (verbal & visual).
 The brain can’t simultaneously give full
attention to both the visual task of
driving and the auditory task of
listening.
 Directing attention to listening
effectively ‘turns down the volume’
when there is input to the visual parts
of the brain.
 The evidence suggests that attention is
strictly limited - a zero-sum game.
 When attention is deployed to one form
(talking on a cell phone), it draws out
another form (the visual task of
driving). 43
 Knowing how to perform some arbitrary task at a
competent level without requiring conscious effort.

 The ability to do things without occupying the mind with

the low-level details required, allowing it to become an
automatic response.

 “I can do the task on auto-pilot or in my sleep”. It is usually

the result of learning, repetition and practice.
 AUTOMATICITY PROCESSING
• Practice plays a major role in determining one’s
performance.
• After an activity is sufficiently practiced, it is possible to focus the
mind on other activities or thoughts while undertaking an
automatized activity.
• Processing activities become automatic as a result of prolonged
practice. The more you practice, the more automatic your action is.
• You can actually do without thinking about what to do.

45
5.0 HUMAN ERROR
 5.0 HUMAN ERROR
• Error is an appropriate action that has gone
awry somewhere in its execution
• All those occasions in which a planned
sequence of mental or physical activities fails
to achieve its intended outcome
• Can be in term of action, write and talk
• Two categories :
1. Slip
2. Lapse
 5.0 HUMAN ERROR
1. SLIP
• Slip is a form of human error defined to be the
performance of an action that was not what was
intended (Norman, 1981).
• Word we want to execute appropriate action but the
result of our last action is wrong
• For example, tossing sweaty T-shirt into the toilet,
instead of into the laundry basket.
 5.0 HUMAN ERROR (CONT)
2. LAPSE
• Lapse are missed actions and omissions, i.e. when
somebody has failed to do something due to lapses of
memory or attention (Groome et al., 2006)
• Lapse is when the action is simply omitted or not
carried out.
• These are failures to remember something such a
word, a person’s name or failure to remember to
carry out an action usually do like forget to taking
medicines at regular intervals.
 5. 1 WHY DO ERROR OCCUR?
• Mycielska (1982) found that slips of action were most likely
to occur in highly familiar surroundings during the
performance of frequently and/or recently executed tasks in
which a considerable degree of automaticity had been
achieved.
• Absent-mindedness and did not give attention during do
work.
• Sternberg (1996): it occur because of two factor:
1. We deviate from routine
• Eg: We plan to exercise the next morning but it did not go that
way because it is not our habit.
2. Automatic process are interrupted or got distracted :
• Eg: During cooking we forgot to turn off the stove because we
got distract from other thing like work problem
5. 1 WHY DO ERROR OCCUR? (CONT)
• Sigmund Freud : Slip occur because invariably a
result of an unconscious thought, wish or desire.
• Donald Norman : Error occur because subconscious
mind.
• The habit is strong enough, even cues that only
partially match the situation in which it usually
occurs are likely to activate it
• Eg: absentminded person who went to the
bedroom to dress for dinner but instead put
on his pajamas and got into bed.