PERSONAL

DEVELOPMENT
> Stages of Social Development
> Effects of Parenting Styles
> Social Competence

Presented by Group 2 – 11 Justice

Stages of Social
Development
Erick Homberger Erikson

– A German-American developmental psychologist and

psychoanalyst
– Known for his theory on psychological development for human
beings
– Most famous for coining the phrase Identity Crisis
– Despite lacking a bachelor’s degree, Erikson served as a professor
at prominent institutions, including Harvard, University of
California (UC Berkeley), and Yale.
Erikson’s (1959) theory of psychosocial development has
8 distinct stages, taking in 5 stages up to the age of 18
and 3 further stages beyond, into adulthood.
EPIGENETIC PRINCIPLE:
Personality develops in a predetermined order, and builds upon each
previous stage.

 During each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis which could have a positive or
negative outcome for personality development.
 For Erikson (1963), these crises are of psychosocial nature because they involve psychological needs
conflicting with the needs of society.
 According to this theory:
Successful completion of stage = healthy personality and the acquisition of basic virtues (characteristic
strengths which the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises)
Failure to complete a stage = reduced ability to complete further stages and therefore a more
unhealthy personality and sense of self
STAGE PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS BASIC VIRTUE AGE

1 Trust vs. Mistrust Hope 0–1½

2 Autonomy vs. Shame Will 1½–3

3 Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose 3–5

4 Industry vs. Inferiority Competency 5 – 12

5 Identity vs. Role Confusion Fidelity 12 – 18

6 Intimacy vs. Isolation Love 18 – 40

7 Generativity vs. Stagnation Care 40 – 65

8 Ego Integrity vs. Despair Wisdom 65+

TRUST vs MISTRUST
Is the world a safe place or is it full of unpredictable events
and accidents waiting to happen?

Erikson’s first stage occurs during the first year or so of life.

During this stage:

- The infant is uncertain about the world in which they
live. To resolve these feelings of uncertainty, the infant
looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and
consistency of care.
- If the care the infant receives is consistent, predictable
and reliable, they will develop a sense of trust which will
carry with them to other relationships, and they will be
able to feel secure even when threatened.
 Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of Hope

• By developing a sense of trust, the infant can have

hope that as new crises arise, there is a real possibility
that other people will be there as a source of support.
• Failing to acquire the virtue of hope will lead to the
development of fear
• For example, if the care has been harsh or inconsistent,
unpredictable and unreliable, then the infant will not
have confidence in the world around them or in their
abilities to influence events.
• It may result in:
- Anxiety
- Heightened Insecurities
- Over feeling of mistrust in the world around them
AUTONOMY vs SHAME
This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to
approximately 3 years.

During this stage:

- The child is developing physically and becoming more
mobile, and discovering that s/he has many skills and
abilities, such as putting on clothes and shoes, playing
with toys, etc. Such skills illustrate the child’s growing
sense of independence and autonomy.
- For example, children begin to assert their independence
by walking away from their mother, picking which toy
to play with, and making choices of what they want to
wear, eat, etc.
It is CRITICAL that parents allow their children to explore the limits of
their abilities within an encouraging environment which is tolerant of
failure.

• For example..
• A delicate balance is required from the parent. They must try not to
do everything for the child, but if the child fails at a particular task
they must not criticize the child for failures and accidents.
• The aim has to be “self control without a loss of self-esteem” (Gross,
1922).
• Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of Will
• If children in this stage are encouraged and supported in their
increased independence, they become more confident and secure in
their own ability to survive in the world.
• If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the
opportunity to assert themselves, they begin to:
- Feel inadequate in their ability to survive
- Become overly dependent upon others
- Lack self-esteem
- Feel a sense of shame or doubt in their abilities
INITIATIVE vs GUILT
During the initiative versus guilt stage, children assert
themselves more frequently.

These are particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a

child’s life. According to Bee (1992), it is a “time of vigor of
action and of behaviors that the parents may see as
aggressive.”

During this stage:

- the primary feature involves the child regularly
interacting with other children at school. Central to this
stage is play. (Play provides children with the
opportunity to explore.)
- Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and
initiate activities with others.
• If given the opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative and
feel secure in their ability to lead others.
• Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or
control, children may develop a sense of guilt. They may feel like a
nuisance to others and will remain followers, lacking in self-initiative.
• For example..
• The child takes initiatives which the parents will often try to stop in
order to protect the child.
• Too much guilt can make the child:
- Slow to interact with others
- Inhibit their creativity
• Some guilt is, of course, necessary, otherwise the child would not
know how to exercise self-control or have a conscience.

A HEALTHY BALANCE between initiative and guilt is important.

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of Purpose
INDUSTRY vs INFERIORITY
This occurs during childhood between the ages of 5 and 12.

During this stage:

- Children learn to read and write, to do things on their
own.
- Teachers begin to take an important role in the child as
they teach the child specific skills.
- Child’s peer group will gain greater significance and will
become a major source of the child’s self-esteem.
- Child feels the need to win approval by demonstrating
specific competencies that are valued by society and
begin to develop a sense of pride in their
accomplishments.
• If children are encouraged and reinforced for their
initiative, they begin to feel industrious (competent) and
feel confident.
• If this initiative is not encouraged, if it is restricted by
parents or teacher, then the child:
- Begins to feel inferior
- Begins to doubt his own abilities
- May not reach his/her own potential
• If the child cannot develop the specific skill they feel
society is demanding ( e.g., being athletic) then they may
develop a sense of inferiority

Some failure may be necessary so that the child may

develop some Modesty. Again, a balance between
competence and modesty is necessary. Success in this stage
will lead to the virtue of Competence
IDENTITY vs ROLE
CONFUSION
During adolescence, the transition from childhood to
adulthood is most important.
- Children are becoming more independent and begin to
look at the future.
- The individual wants to belong to a society and fit in.

The fifth stage occurs during adolescence, from about 12 –

18 years. During this stage:
- Adolescents search for a sense of self and personal
identity, through an intense exploration of personal
values, beliefs, and goals.

The adolescent mind is essentially a mind or moratorium, a

psychosocial stage between childhood and adulthood, and
between the morality learned by the child, and the ethics
to be developed by the adult (Erikson, 1963)
This is a MAJOR stage of development where the child has
to learn the roles s/he will occupy as an adult.
- Re-examine his identity
- Try to find out who s/he is

Two identities are involved:

- Sexual
- Occupational
According to Bee (1992), what should happen at the end of this
stage is , “a reintegrated sense of self, of what one wants to do
or be, and of one’s appropriate sex role.” During this stage the
body image of the adolescent changes.

Success into this stage will lead to the virtue of Fidelity

Fidelity – being able to commit one’s self to others on the basis
of accepting others, even when there may be ideological
differences.

During this period:

- They explore possibilities and begin to form their own
identity based upon the outcome of their explorations

Failure to establish a sense of identity within society can lead to

role confusion
Role confusion involves the individual not being sure about
themselves or their place in society
In response to role confusion or
IDENTITY CRISIS, an adolescent may
begin to experiment with different
lifestyles (e.g., work, education or
political activities)

Also pressuring someone into an

identity may result in rebellion in the
form of establishing a negative identity
and in addition to this, feeling of
unhappiness.
INTIMACY vs ISOLATION
This stage takes place during young adulthood between the
ages of approximately 18 – 40 years.

During this period:

- Major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving
relationships with other people
- We begin to share ourselves more intimately.
- We explore relationships leading toward longer-term
commitments with someone other than a family
member.

Successful completion = happy relationships and a sense of

commitment, safety, and care within a relationship
Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment & relationships =
lead to isolation, loneliness and sometimes depression

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of Love

GENERATIVITY vs
STAGNATION
This stage takes place during middle adulthood (ages 40 –
65 years).

Generativity refers to “making your mark” on the world

through creating or nurturing things that will outlast an
individual.
- People often create positive changes that will benefit
other people.
- They give back to society through raising their children,
being productive at work, and becoming involved in
community activities and organizations.
Through generativity we develop a sense of being part of a
bigger picture.

Success = feeling of usefulness and accomplishment

Failure = shallow involvement in the world
By failing to find a way to
contribute, we become stagnant
and feel unproductive. These
individuals may feel:
- Disconnected
- Uninvolved with their community

Success in this stage will lead to

virtue of Care
EGO INTEGRITY vs DESPAIR
This stage begins at approximately age 65 and ends at
death.

As we grow older and become senior citizens, we tend to

slow down our productivity and explore life as a retired
person.

During this stage:

- Contemplate their accomplishments
- Develop integrity if they see themselves leading a
successful life

Ego Integrity
- acceptance of one’s one and only life cycle as something
that had to be
- Sense of coherence and wholeness
Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel
guilt about our past, or feel that we did not accomplish our
life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop
despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.

Success in this stage = virtue of Wisdom

Wisdom enables a person to look back on their life with a
sense of closure and completeness, and also accept death
without fear.

Wise people are characterized by a continuous state of ego

integrity, but they experience both ego integrity and
despair. Thus, late life is characterized by both integrity and
despair as alternating states that need to be balanced.
Effects of Parenting
Styles to Children
Parenting style has a big impact on how children develop into
adults, and there are important implications for the future success.

AUTHORITARIAN PARENTING
Characterized by:
- Adherence to rules
- Dominating style
- Great deal of control
The authoritarian parents may be punitive and is likely to be
believe in the, “spare the rod, spoil the child” rule.

As teenagers, children of authoritarian parents, may:

- Lack some of the critical social
- Lack of communication skills
- Tend to become authoritarian themselves both in their
interpersonal relationships and as parents
NEGLECTFUL PARENTING
- Is when parents simply don’t engage much in the parenting role.
- They spend little time with their children and are happy to let the
TV and video games do the babysitting.

Children of neglectful parents:

- Often have trouble following rules
- Can have behavior problems due to lack of self-control
- Communication skills may also not fully develop

INDULGENT PARENTING
- Attentive parents, who provide a great deal of warmth and
interaction, but few rules and constraints
- An “anything goes” attitude is typical
- Parents seem more like friends than parents
INDULGENT PARENTING
Children of Indulgent parents:
- leads to higher levels of creativity
- Little self-control, few boundaries and a sense of entitlement

This can create one-sided interpersonal relationships, where the adult

child of the indulgent parent is more willing to take than give.

AUTHORITATIVE PARENTING
- GOLD STANDARD
- Parents encourage their children to be independent but also set
limits and boundaries
- Discipline is applied, but in a supportive, non-punitive way

Children of Authoritative parents:

- increasing levels of independence
- Higher leadership potential in the children of authoritative parent
- Social skills, self-control, and self-reliance are highly developed
(these qualities that make ideal employees, leaders, and life
partners)
Social Competence
 SOCIAL COMPETENCE

– Set of skills necessary to get along with others and

behave constructively in groups
– These encompasses skills like: empathy, emotional
regulation, perspective taking, cooperation,
friendliness, and social problem solving skills
– Research shows that students with social competence
often do better and have more positive personal
relationships
SKILLS THAT MOST LIKELY CONTRIBUTE
TO ACADEMIC SUCCESS

PERSPECTIVE TAKING
- Ability to picture what peers are feeling and thinking
- And accurately interpret and understand peers’ intentions
COOPERATION
- Working well with peers to accomplish a task
SOCIAL PROBLEM SOLVING
- Resolving problems in ways that maximize negative consequences for
oneself and others
 RESEARCH ON SOCIAL COMPETENCE

- Precursor to social acceptance

- Studies show that students who are not socially competent are more likely
to experience peer rejection compared to their socially competent peers
- Students with low peer acceptance are more likely to have:
1. Negative school attitudes
2. Avoid school
3. Participate less in the classroom
4. Have lower levels of academic achievement
5. Have low emotional well-being and feel lonely

One research…
 RESEARCH ON SOCIAL COMPETENCE

- In contrast, successful social interactions improve students’ self

concepts, perception of peers and teachers, connectedness to
school, and ultimate academic achievement.
- Thus, it appears that social competence may affect academic
outcomes by shaping a student’s feelings of connectedness to
the school based on her/his interactions with peers.
- Additionally, it affects the emotional well-being and the
ability to cope in a school setting.
end
FOR EXAMPLE:
Rather than put on a child’s clothes a
supportive parent should have the
patience to allow the child to try until
they succeed or ask for assistance. So,
the parents, need to encourage the child
to become more independent while at
the same time protecting the child so
that constant failure is avoided.
FOR EXAMPLE:
It is at this stage that the child will begin
to ask many questions as his thirst for
knowledge grows. If the parents treat
the child’s questions as trivial, a
nuisance or embarrassing or others
aspects of their behavior as threatening
then the child may have feelings of guilt
for being nuisance.
FOR EXAMPLE:
One research study involving children
from European American families found
that those with lower levels of social
competence at age four exhibited more
internalizing behaviors (e.g., depression,
anxiety) at age ten, and more
externalizing behaviors (e.g., problems
with attention and self-regulation) at
age fourteen.