Data Presentation Elements

ME 220
Classification of data presentation elements

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Pointer–scale indicators

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• By defining Δθ and ΔETh to be deviations from initial steady
conditions (0–), ETh(0–), we can derive the transfer function for the
indicator.

• This can be expressed in the standard second-order form:

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Digital display principles [Character display]

 Seven-segment character format

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 7  5 dot-matrix character format

 Display set of 192 characters -- all the numerals, upper

and lower case letters, together with Greek letters and other
symbols.
 9  7 dot-matrix format gives a better representation of lower
case letters.
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Display of numerals using 7-segment
format
Each character format is an
array of segments or dots; these
elements are referred to as
pixels.

 To display a character each pixel must be separately

switched ‘on’ and ‘off’ independently of the other pixels.

 When a pixel is switched on, either it is a source

emitting light or it is modulating light from other
sources.

 When a pixel is switched off it is either not emitting

light or not modulating light.

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 Example:
 Display the numerals 0 to 9 using
the seven-segment format
 Each of the pixels abcdefg can be
switched individually on or off using
a seven-digit parallel binary code
where a ‘1’ corresponds to ‘on’ and a
‘0’ to ‘off’.
 Figure shows the seven-segment
codes corresponding to the numerals
0 to 9.
 A 7- segment decoder is used to
convert the input parallel digital
signal, usually in binary coded
decimal (b.c.d.) or ASCII format, into
seven-segment code.

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 Digital display principles [Graphic display]

 To show line diagrams, graphs, waveforms, bar charts, etc.

 Consist of a large number of pixels arranged in rows (along the y-
axis) and columns (along the x-axis).
 The pixels are arranged in a matrix of columns (x) and rows (y).
 Each column (x) and each row (y) has an electrical conductor
giving a corresponding matrix of conductors.
 Each pixel, with position coordinates (x, y), is connected across
the corresponding x and y conductors at their point of intersection

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Column voltage waveforms Vx and row voltage waveforms Vy

 The pixel (2, 1) is switched on during

time interval 0 to T/3.
 The pixels (1, 1), (2, 1), (1, 3) and (2,
3) are switched on during the time
interval T/3 to 2T/3.
 Pixel (3, 2) is switched on during time
interval 2T/3 to T.
 There are six electrical conductors for
nine pixels so that the saving in
external connections is small.
 All waveforms are repeated every
repetition period T; this is to refresh
the display.
 Provided T is sufficiently short, the
brightness of the screen remains
reasonably constant without flicker.

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 Light-emitting diode (LED) displays

 LEDs have the special property that when forward biased they emit
electromagnetic radiation over a certain band of wavelengths.
 Two commonly used LED materials are
 Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) -- emits red light
 Gallium phosphide (GaP) -- emits green or yellow light.

Forward biased LED

Current/voltage (GaAsP)
Relative intensity
Luminous intensity/current wavelength (GaAsP)
(GaAsP)
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LEDs
• When switched ‘on’, a typical GaAsP diode requires a forward
current iF of around 20 mA corresponding to a luminous intensity Iν of
4.0 mcd (millicandela), and a forward voltage VF of 2.2 V.

• When used as a display pixel the diode should be switched ‘on’ by a

logic signal in the ‘l’ state, and switched ‘off’ when the signal is in the
‘0’ state.

• A simple circuit for achieving this,

using a series resistor R of 140 Ω.
• For a ‘1’ input, VS ≈ 5 V,
iF = (5 − 2.2)/140 = 20 mA and the diode
is ‘on’.
• For a ‘0’ input, VS ≈ 0 V, iF is negligible
and the diode is ‘off ’.

 The response of LEDs to step changes in iF is extremely fast; turn-on and turn-
off times of 10 ns are typical.
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 It lets you “see”
electrical signals.

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Cathode ray tube (CRT) displays

 Electrons are emitted at the cathode and accelerated towards the anode.
 A third electrode, called a grid or modulator, is placed between cathode and anode:
by altering the potential of the modulator the number of electrons in the beam, i.e.
the beam current, can be adjusted.
 The beam then passes through a focusing system followed by X and Y deflection
systems: the focusing and deflection systems can be electromagnetic (EM), or
electrostatic (ES).
 The electron beam is brought to a focus on the inside surface of the screen, which is
coated with a large number of phosphor dots. These dots form the pixels.
 Phosphors are semiconductor materials which emit visible radiation in response to
the impact of electrons: a spot of light therefore appears on the screen.
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 Suppose Vx = sin(t), Vy = cos(t) are applied to the horizontal and vertical
deflection plates respectively. Then the bright spot would follow a circular path
on the CRO screen.

Example 1:

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 Example 2:

Example 3:

Example 4:

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 A colour display produces images containing a wide range of
colours. The screen of a colour CRT is coated with dots of three
different types of phosphor: one type of phosphor emits red light, the
second green light, the third blue light.
 Dots of each type are arranged in equilateral triangles called triads .
 The monitor has three electron guns, one for each type of phosphor.
 The corresponding electron beams are deflected horizontally and
vertically to produce a raster display as in a monochrome monitor.
 As the beams traverse the screens, the intensity of each beam is
varied according to the voltage applied to the corresponding
modulator electrode.
 This creates varying colour intensities at the triads and colour
images on the screen.

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 Figure shows, in black-and white, a colour line diagram of
part of a chemical plant; alphanumeric data such as
descriptions of process variables and their measured
values can be displayed at any appropriate point on the
diagram.
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Liquid crystal displays (LCDs)

Principle: V = 0 Principle: V ≠ 0

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 Digital Images and Pixels

 A digital image is a binary (digital) representation

of a two-dimensional pictorial data.
 Digital images may have a raster or vector
representation.
 Raster Images defined over a 2D grid of picture
elements, called pixels.
 A pixel is the basic items of a raster image and
include intensity or color value.

Pixels

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Seven-segment display

Character display

Character display
Graphics display system.

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Electroluminescence displays

Construction
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Display of measured variable waveforms.

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Chart recorders

Schematic of analogue recorder

Block diagram of analogue recorder

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 Block diagram of digital recorder

Chart record of
measured variables.

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Paperless recorders
 System block diagram

Typical recording

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Laser printers

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Data presentation element
 The data presentation element is the final element in the measurement
system, its function being to communicate the measured value of the
variable to a human observer.
 It is important that the measured value is presented as clearly and easily as
possible, otherwise the value registered by the observer may be different.
 Consider an accurate flow measurement system where the true value of
flow rate is 11.3 m3/h and the measured value 11.5 m3/h, i.e. a
measurement system error of 11.5 − 11.3 = 0.2 m3/h. If the observed
value is 12.0 m3/h, then the observation error is 12.0 − 11.5 = 0.5 m3/h.
 This is greater than the measurement error and means that the high
system accuracy is wasted.

 Observation error depends on many factors:

 • Distance of the element from the observer
 • Ambient lighting
 • Eyesight, patience and skill of the observer.

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 If no permanent record of measured variables is required, then
displays can be used. A choice must first be made between
analogue pointer–scale indicators and digital displays.
 With the pointer–scale indicator, the observer must
interpolate if the pointer lies between two scale marks: thus
if the pointer lies between 9 and 10 the observer must decide
whether the measured value is say 9.4, 9.5 or 9.6.
 Thus an observation error of up to ±0.5 units is possible.
 This problem is avoided with a two-decade digital display,
which presents the number directly as 9.5.
 Character displays, display numerals and letters of the
alphabet, and graphic displays, show line diagrams, graphs
and waveforms, etc.

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 There are four types of digital display technology in wide current use: light
emitting diodes (LED), cathode ray tubes (CRT), liquid crystal
displays (LCD) and electroluminescent displays (EL).
 LEDs have high power consumption, which makes them only suitable
for small-scale character displays; they are not used in graphic displays.
 CRTs are used for character and graphics displays, monochrome and
colour, but have the disadvantage of high operating voltages and are high-
volume bulky devices.
 LCDs are used for both character and graphics displays. LCD character
displays, usually monochrome, have much lower power consumption than
equivalent LED displays. LCD graphics displays, monochrome and colour,
are flat screen panels and have lower operating voltages and
power consumption than equivalent CRT devices.
 Electroluminescent displays are also flat screen and are used for both
character and graphics monochrome displays. They have higher operating
voltages and power consumption than equivalent LCD devices but greater
contrast ratio and viewing angle.

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 A record of the time variation of the measured variables would be
essential, for example, in the following situations:
 (a) High-speed events, e.g. a human heartbeat, which are too fast to
be followed by a human observer. Changes in the recorded blood
pressure waveform will then show clearly any irregular or abnormal
behaviour.
 (b) The monitoring of a complex process such as a gas compressor
which has a number of associated measured variables. If the
compressor breaks down, then the exact sequence of events drop in
lubricating oil pressure – rise in bearing temperature – drop in delivery
pressure can be found and the cause of failure established.
 (c) Large amounts of data which are to be used in numerical
calculations. Examples are the calculations of the yield and efficiency
of a chemical reactor from composition, temperature, pressure and
flow-rate data, and the value of gas transferred from supplier to
customer in a given month.

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 Chart recorders give a record, on paper, of the time
variation of a measured variable; these can be analogue or
digital and the record can be either a continuous line or a series of
dots.
 They can record up to six variables but have limited speed of
response; they also require regular replacement of paper and pens.
 A chart recorder could be satisfactorily used in situation (b).
 Paperless recorders use LCD displays and digital archive
memory; these typically can record four measured variables and
have less maintenance requirements than chart recorders. They also
have a fast speed of response and could be satisfactorily used in
situation (a).
 Laser printers can print large amounts of data, in character or
graphics form, on paper. A laser printer would therefore be ideal in
situation (c) where large tables of numerical data need to be printed
out for checking and calculation.

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