Chapter - 1

Solar Energy & Its Measurement

Solar Radiation
• The sun is a gaseous body composed mostly of hydrogen
• Gravity causes intense pressure and heat at the core
initiating nuclear fusing reactions
• This means that atoms of lighter elements are combined into
atoms of heavier elements, which releases enormous
quantities of energy
• Even when planet Earth is 93 million miles away, we still
receive an amazing quantity of usable energy from the sun.
• Considering 25% efficient PV modules, if we used 1% of the
surface of the earth we could meet 29 times our current total
energy demand.
Solar Constant
 The rate at which solar energy arrives at the top of the
atmoshphere is called the solar constant (Isc).
 It’s the amount of energy received in the unit time on a
unit area perpendicular to the sun’s direction at the mean
distance of the earth from the sun.
 As per NASA research Solar constant is expressed in
three units:
 1.353 kilowatts per square meter
 1353 watt per square meter
 116.5 langleys (calories per sq. m.)
 429.2 Btu per Sq. Ft. perhour
Contd..
 The distance between the earth and the sun varies a little
through the year.
 Closest in the summer and farthest in winter.
 This distance produces a nearly sinusoidal variation in the
intensity of the solar radiation (I) that reaches the earth
 I/Isc = 1+ 0.033 cos (360 x n/365)
 Where n = day of the year.
Solar Radiation
• Solar irradiance is the intensity of solar power, usually
expressed in Watts per square meter [W/m^2]
• PV modules output is rated based on Peak Sun (1000
W/m^2).
• Since the proportion of input/output holds pretty much linearly
for any given PV efficiency, we can very easily evaluate a
system performance check by measuring irradiance and the
PV module output.
• The amount of radiation received is proportional to the
inverse of the square of the distance from the source –that is,
twice the distance ¼ of the energy, four times the distance 1/16
and so on
• Solar irradiation is simply the solar irradiance multiplied by
time. It is measured in Watt-hours per square meter [Wh/m^2]
Solar Radiation
Solar Radiation
Solar Radiation
• Solar Spectrum most the
energy received from the sun is
electromagnetic radiation in the
form of waves.
• Electromagnetic Spectrum is
the range of all types of
electromagnetic radiation, based
on wavelength.
•Maximum value of solar radiation
intensity occurs at wavelength of
0.48 micro meter and 99 % of
sun’s radiation is obtained upto a
wavelength of 4 micrometer.
Solar Radiation
• Atmospheric Effects: Solar radiation is absorbed, scattered and
reflected by components of the atmosphere
• The amount of radiation reaching the earth is less than what
entered the top of the atmosphere. We classify it in two categories:
1. Direct Radiation: radiation from the sun that reaches the earth
without scattering
2. Diffuse Radiation: radiation that is scattered by the atmosphere
and clouds and hence direction has been changed.
3. Insolation: The total of solar radiation received at any point in the
earth’s surface is the sum of direct and diffuse radiation, which is
referred as insolation.
Solar Radiation
Attenuation of Beam Radiation
Solar Radiation
• Air Mass represents how much atmosphere the solar radiation
has to pass through before reaching the Earth’s surface
• Air Mass (AM) equals 1.0 when the sun is directly overhead at
sea level. AM = 1/ Cos Өz
• We are specifically concerned with terrestrial solar radiation –
that is, the solar radiation reaching the surface of the earth.
• At high altitudes or in a very clear days, Peak Sun may be more
than 1000 W/m^2 but it is a practical value for most locations
• Peak Sun Hours is the number of hours required for a day’s
total radiation to accumulate at peak sun condition.
Solar Radiation
• Zenith is the point in the sky directly overhead a particular location –as
the Zenith angle Өz increases, the sun approaches the horizon.
AM = 1/ Cos Өz
•
Solar Radiation
•If dur Example problem of Peak sun hours per day:
ing the day we have 4 hours at 500 Wh/m^2 and 6 hours at 250
Wh/m^2 we should compute the peak sun hours per day as follow:
Sol: 4hs x 500 W/m^2 + 6hs x 250 W/m^2 =3500 Wh/m^2
Peak Sun Hours = Total Irradiation [Wh/m^2] / Peak Sun
[W/m^2] = Peak Sun hours
In our specific problem:
Peak Sun Hours = 3500 Wh/m^2 / 1000 W/m^2 = 3.5 Peak Sun
hours

• Note: most solar irradiation data is presented in Peak Sun Hours

units
Solar Radiation
• Insolation; this is an equivalent term for solar irradiation and can be
expressed in KWh/m^2/day or peak sun hours
 Solar Radiation

• Solar spectral distribution is important to

understanding how the PV modules that we’re going to
utilize respond to it
• Most Silicon based PV devices respond only to
visible and the near infrared portions of the spectrum
• Thin film modules generally have a narrower
response range
Solar Radiation
• Two major motions of Earth affect the apparent
path of the sun across the sky:
1. Its yearly revolution around the sun
2. Its daily rotation about its axis
• These motions are the basis for solar timescale and
the reason why we have seasons, days and nights
• Ecliptic Plane is the plane of Earth’s orbit around
the sun
• Equatorial Plane is the plane containing Earth’s
equator and extending outward into space
Solar Radiation
 Solar Radiation
• Solar Declination is the angle between the equatorial plane and the ecliptic plane
• The solar declination angle varies with the season of the year, and ranges
between –23.5º and +23.5º
Latitude, Hour and Declination angle…....
Contd..
Contd..
Solar Radiation

Solar Altitude Angle is the vertical angle between

the sun and the horizon –added to the Zenith angle is
equal to 90º
Azimuth Angle is the horizontal angle between a
reference direction.
In the solar industry we call south 180º and this
angle will range between 90º (east) and 270º (west)
 Solar Radiation

• Solar Window is the area of sky between sun paths at summer solstice and winter
solstice for a particular location
Various Angles & Relations
 Altitude angle – α
 Zenith angle – θz = π/2 - α
 Solar Azimuth Angle – γs
 Latitude Angle – Фl
 Declination Angle – δ
 Hour Angle - ω
 Additional angles:
 Slope(s): Angle made by the plane surface with the horizontal. It’s
taken positive for the surface slopping towards the south and reverse
for the north.
 Surface Azimuth Angle(γ) : Angle deviation of the normal to the
surface from local meridian, the zero point being the south, east
positive and west negative.
 Incident Angle (θ): Angle being measured between beam of rays
and normal to the plane.
Equations
 Altitude angle , zenith angel and solar azimuth angle can be
expressed in terms of latitude angle, declination and hour
angle, which are called basic angles.
cos θz = cos Ф. cos ώ cos δ + sin Ф sin δ
cos γs = sec α (cos Ф sin δ – cos δ sin Ф cos ώ)
sin γs = sec α cos δ sin ώ
 For Spherical geometry the relation between θ and other
angles is given by the equation:
 cos θ = sin Ф (sin δ cos s + cos δ cos ώ sin s) + cos Ф (cos δ
cos ώ cos s - sin δ cos γ sin s) + cos δ sin γ sin ώ sin s ….(1)
 Hour angle can be expressed as ω = 15(12-LST)
Contd..
 For, Vertical surfaces, s= 90 then putting the value in equation
1,
 cos θ = sin Ф (sin δ cos 90 + cos δ cos ώ sin 90) + cos Ф (cos
δ cos ώ cos 90 - sin δ cos γ sin 90) + cos δ sin γ sin ώ sin 90
 cos θ = sin Ф cos δ cos γ cos ώ - cos Ф sin δ cos γ + cos δ sin
γ sin ώ ………(2)
 For, horizontal surfaces s= 0 and θ = θz zenith angle , putting
value in eq. 1,
 Cos θz = sin Ф sin δ + cos δ cos Ф sin ώ = sin α ……(3)
Day Length
 At the time of sun rise or sunset, the zenith angle is 90,
substituting the same in eq. 3
 Cos ώ = - sin Ф sin δ / cos δ cos Ф = - tan Ф tan δ
 Since, 15 of the hour angle are equivalent to the 1 hour, the
day length in hours
 Td = 2 ώ/15 = 2 Cos -1 (- tan Ф tan δ)/15
Local Solar time
 Local Solar Time = Standard time + 4 (Standard time longitude
– longitude of the location ) + (Equation of time correction)

 Examples