Lecture 2 - Fundamentals

June 4, 2003
RC 444

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Lecture Goals
Design Process
Limit states
Design Philosophy
Loading
Concrete Properties
Steel Properties

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Design Process
Phase 1: Definition of clients’ needs and
priorities.
 Functional requirements

 Aesthetic requirements

 Budgetary requirements

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Design Process
Phase 2: Development of project
concept
 Develop possible layouts

 Approximate analysis preliminary members

sizes/cost for each arrangement

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Design Process
Phase 2: Development of project
concept
 Selection most desirable structural system
 Appropriateness
 Economical/Cost
 Maintainability

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Design Process
Phase 3: Design of individual system

 Structural analysis (based on preliminary

design)
 Moments
 Shear forces
 Axial forces

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Design Process
Phase 3: Design of individual system(cont.)

 Member design
 Prepare construction days and
specifications.
 Proportion members to resist forces
 aesthetics

 constructability

 maintainability

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Limit States and Design
Limit State:
Condition in which a structure or structural
element is no longer acceptable for its
intended use.

Major groups for RC structural limit states

 Ultimate
 Serviceability
 Special

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Ultimate Limit State
Ultimate limit state
 structural collapse of all or part of the
structure ( very low probability of
occurrence) and loss of life can occur.
 Loss of equilibrium of a part or all of a
structure as a rigid body (tipping, sliding of
structure).

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Ultimate Limit States
Ultimate limit state
 Rupture of critical components causing
partial or complete collapse. (flexural,
shear failure).

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Ultimate Limit States
Progressive Collapse
 Minor local failure overloads causing
adjacent members to failure entire structure
collapses.
 Structural integrity is provided by tying the
structure together with correct detailing of
reinforcement provides alternative load paths
in case of localized failure

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Ultimate Limit States
Formation of a plastic mechanism - yielding
of reinforced forms plastic hinges at enough
sections to make structure unstable.
Instability cased by deformations of structure
causing buckling of members.
Fatigue - members can fracture under
repeated stress cycles of service loads (may
cause collapse).

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Serviceability Limit States
Functional use of structure is disrupted, but
collapse is not expected
More often tolerated than an an ultimate
limit state since less danger of loss of life.
 Excessive crack width leakage
corrosion of reinforcement
gradual deterioration of structure.

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Serviceability Limit States
More often tolerated than an an ultimate limit
state since less danger of loss of life.

 Excessive deflections for normal service

caused by possible effects
 malfunction of machinery
 visually unacceptable

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Serviceability Limit States
More often tolerated than an an ultimate limit
state since less danger of loss of life.

 Excessive deflections for normal service

caused by possible effects
 damage of nonstructural elements
 changes in force distributions
 ponding on roofs collapse of roof

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Serviceability Limit States
More often tolerated than an ultimate limit
state since less danger of loss of life.
 Undesirable vibrations

 vertical floors/ bridges

 lateral/torsional tall buildings
 Change in the loading

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Special Limit States
Damage/failure caused by abnormal conditions
or loading.

 Extreme earthquakes damage/collapse

 Floods damage/collapse

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Special Limit States
Damage/failure caused by abnormal conditions
or loading.

 Effects of fire,explosions, or vehicular

collisions.
 Effects of corrosion, deterioration
 Long-term physical or chemical instability

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Limit States Design
Identify all potential modes of failure.

Determine acceptable safety levels for normal

structures building codes load
combination/factors.

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Limit States Design
Consider the significant limits states.
 Members are designed for ultimate limit

states
 Serviceability is checked.

Exceptions may include

 water tanks (crack width)
 monorails (deflection)

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ACI Building Codes
Whenever two different materials , such as steel and
concrete, acting together, it is understandable that the
analysis for strength of a reinforced concrete member
has to be partial empirical although rational. These
semi-rational principles and methods are being
constant revised and improved as a result of
theoretical and experimental research accumulate. The
American Concrete Institute (ACI), serves as clearing
house for these changes, issues building code
requirements.
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Design Philosophy
Two philosophies of design have long prevalent.
• Working stress method focuses on conditions
at service loads.
• Strength of design method focusing on
conditions at loads greater than the service
loads when failure may be imminent.
The strength design method is deemed conceptually
more realistic to establish structural safety.

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Strength Design Method
In the strength method, the service loads are
increased sufficiently by factors to obtain the load at
which failure is considered to be “imminent”. This
load is called the factored load or factored service
load.
strength required to 
strength provided   
 carry factored loads 

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Strength Design Method
Strength provide is computed in accordance with
rules and assumptions of behavior prescribed by the
building code and the strength required is obtained by
performing a structural analysis using factored loads.
The “strength provided” has commonly referred to as
“ultimate strength”. However, it is a code defined
value for strength and not necessarily “ultimate”. The
ACI Code uses a conservative definition of strength.

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Safety Provisions

Structures and structural members must always be

designed to carry some reserve load above what is
expected under normal use.

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Safety Provisions
There are three main reasons why some sort of
safety factor are necessary in structural design.
[1] Variability in resistance.
[2] Variability in loading.
[3] Consequences of failure.

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Variability in Resistance
Variability of the strengths of concrete
and reinforcement.
Differences between the as-built
dimensions and those found in
structural drawings.
Effects of simplification made in the
derivation of the members resistance.

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Variability in Resistance

Comparison of
measured and
computed failure
moments based on
all data for reinforced
concrete beams with
fc > 2000 psi.

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Variability in Loading

Frequency distribution
of sustained component
of live loads in offices.

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Consequences of Failure
A number of subjective factors must be
considered in determining an acceptable level of
safety.
Potential loss of life.
Cost of clearing the debris and replacement
of the structure and its contents.
Cost to society.
Type of failure warning of failure, existence of
alternative load paths.
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Margin of Safety

The distributions
of the resistance
and the loading
are used to get a
probability of
failure of the
structure.

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Margin of Safety
The term
Y=R-S
is called the safety
margin.
The probability of failure is defined as:
Pf  Pr obability of Y  0
and the safety index is
Y

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Y
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Loading
SPECIFICATIONS
Cities in the U.S. generally base their
building code on one of the three model
codes:
 Uniform Building Code
 Basic Building Code (BOCA)
 Standard Building Code

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Loading
These codes have been consolidated in
the 2000 International Building Code.

Loadings in these codes are mainly based

on ASCE Minimum Design Loads for
Buildings and Other Structures (ASCE 7-
98) – has been updated to ASCE 7-02.

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Dead Loading

Weight of all permanent construction

Constant magnitude and fixed location

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Dead Loads
Examples:
 Weight of the Structure
(Walls, Floors, Roofs, Ceilings, Stairways)
 Fixed Service Equipment
(HVAC, Piping Weights, Cable Tray, Etc.)
Can Be Uncertain….
 pavement thickness
 earth fill over underground structure
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Live Loads
Loads produced by use and occupancy of
the structure.
Maximum loads likely to be produced by
the intended use.
Not less than the minimum uniformly
distributed load given by Code.

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Live Loads

See Table 2-1 from ASCE 7-98

Stairs and exitways: 100 psf
Storage warehouses: 125 psf (light)
250 psf (heavy)

Minimum concentrated loads are also given in

the codes.

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Live Loads

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Live Loads
ASCE 7-95 allows reduced live loads for members
with influence area (AI) of 400 sq. ft. or more:
 15 
L  Lo  0.25  
 
 A I 

where Lo  0.50 Lo for members

supporting one floor
 0.40 Lo otherwise

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Live Loads
AI determined by raising member to be designed
by a unit amount. Portion of loaded area that is
raised = AI

Beam: AI = 2 * tributary area

Column: AI = 4 * tributary area
Two-Way Slab: AI = panel area

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Load Reduction

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Environmental Loads
Snow Loads
Earthquake
Wind
Soil Pressure
Ponding of Rainwater
Temperature Differentials

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Classification of Buildings for Wind,
Snow and Earthquake Loads
Based on Use Categories (I through IV)
I Buildings and other structures that represent
a low hazard to human life in the event of a
failure (such as agricultural facilities)

II Buildings/structures not in categories I, III,

and IV

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Classification of Buildings for
Wind, Snow and Earthquake Loads
Based on Use Categories (I through IV)
III Buildings/structures that represent a
substantial hazard to human life in the event
of a failure (assembly halls, schools,
colleges, jails, buildings containing
toxic/explosive substances)

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Classification of Buildings for
Wind, Snow and Earthquake Loads
Based on Use Categories (I through IV)

IV Buildings/structures designated essential

facilities (hospitals, fire and police stations,
communication centers, power-generating
stations)

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Snow Loads

The coefficients
of snow loads are
defined in weight.

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Snow Loads
Ground Snow Loads (Map in Fig. 6, ASCE 7):
Based on historical data (not always the
maximum values)
Basic equation in codes is for flat roof snow
loads
Additional equations for drifting effects, sloped
roofs, etc.
Use ACI live load factor
No LL reduction factor allowed

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Wind Loads
Wind pressure is proportional to velocity
squared (v2 )

Wind velocity pressure = qz

q z  0.00256 K z k zt V I 2

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Wind Loads
q z  0.00256 K z k zt V I 2

where
0.00256 reflects mass density of air and unit conversions.
V = Basic 3-second gust wind speed (mph) at a height of
33 ft. above the ground in open terrain. (1:50
chance of exceedance in 1 year)
Kz = Exposure coefficient (bldg. ht., roughness of terrain)
kzt = Coefficient accounting for wind speed up over hills
I = Importance factor

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Wind Loads
Design wind pressure,
p = qz * G * Cp

G= Gust Response Factor

Cp = External pressure coefficients (accounts for
pressure directions on building)

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Earthquake Loads
Inertia forces caused by earthquake motion

F=m*a

Distribution of forces can be found using

equivalent static force procedure (code, not
allowed for every building) or using dynamic
analysis procedures

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Earthquake Loads
Inertia forces caused by earthquake motion.
Equivalent Static Force Procedure for example,
in ASCE 7-95:

V = Cs * W
where
V = Total lateral base shear
Cs = Seismic response coefficient
W = Total dead load
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Earthquake Loads
Total Dead Load, W:
1.0 * Dead Load
+ 0.25 * Storage Loads
+ larger of partition loads or 10 psf
+ Weight of permanent equipment
+ contents of vessels
+ 20% or more of snow load

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Earthquake Loads
1.2 Cv 2.5 C a
C s  smaller of  2/3
and
R T R
where
Cv = Seismic coefficient based on soil profiled and Av
Ca = Seismic coefficient based on soil profiled and Aa
R = Response modification factor (ability to deform in
inelastic range)
T = Fundamental period of the structure

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Earthquake Loads
1.2 Cv 2.5 C a
C s  smaller of  2/3
and
R T R
where
T = Fundamental period of the structure

T = CT hn 3/4

where CT = 0.030 for MRF of concrete

0.020 for other concrete buildings.
hn = Building height
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Earthquake Map

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Roof Loads
Ponding of rainwater
 Roof must be able to support all rainwater that could
accumulate in an area if primary drains were
blocked.
 Ponding Failure:

 Rain water ponds in area of maximum deflection

 increases deflection
 allows more accumulation of water  cycle
continues… potential failure

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Roof Loads
Roof loads are in addition to snow loads

Minimum loads for workers and construction

materials during erection and repair

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Construction Loads

Construction materials

Weight of formwork supporting weight

of fresh concrete

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Concrete Mixing and
Proportioning
Concrete: Composite material composed of
portland cement, fine aggregate (sand),
coarse aggregate (gravel/stone), and water;
with or without other additives.

Hydration: Chemical process in which the

cement powder reacts with water and sets
and hardens into a solid mass, bonding the
aggregates together

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Concrete Mixing and
Proportioning
Heat of Hydration: Heat is released during the
hydration process.
 In large concrete masses heat is dissipated
slowly temperature rises and
volume expansion later cooling
causes contraction. Use special
measures to control cracking.

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Concrete Mixing and
Proportioning
1. Proportioning: Goal is to achieve mix with
 Adequate strength
 Proper workability for placement
 Low cost
 Low Cost:

 Minimize amount of cement

 Good gradation of aggregates (decreases
voids and cement paste required)

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Concrete Mixing and
Proportioning
 Water-Cement Ratio (W/C)
 Increased W/C: Improves plasticity and
fluidity of the mix.
 Increased W/C: Results in decreased
strength due to larger volume of voids in
cement paste due to free water.

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Concrete Mixing and
Proportioning
 Water-Cement Ratio (W/C) (cont..)
 Complete hydration of cement requires
W/C ~ 0.25.
 Need water to wet aggregate surfaces,
provide mobility of water during
hydration and to provide workability.
 Typical W/C = 0.40-0.60

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Concrete Mixing and
Proportioning
 Water/Concrete table

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Concrete Mixing and
Proportioning
 Proportions have been given by volume or
weight of cement to sand to gravel (ie.
1:2:4) with W/C specified separately
 Now customary to specify per 94 lb. Bag of
cement: wt. Of water, sand & gravel
 Batch quantity: wt. per cubic yard of each
component

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Concrete Mixing and
Proportioning
2. Aggregates
 70-75% of volume of hardened concrete
 Remainder = hardened cement paste,
uncombined water, air voids
 More densely packed aggregate give better
 strength
 weather resistance (durability)
 Economical

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Concrete Mixing and
Proportioning
2. Aggregates
 Fine aggregate: sand (passes through a
No. 4 sieve; 4 openings per inch)
 Coarse aggregate: gravel
 Good gradation:
 2-3 size groups of sand
 Several size groups of gravel

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Concrete Mixing and
Proportioning
 Maximum size of coarse aggregate in RC
structures: Must fit into forms and between
reinforcing bars:(318-99, 3.3.2)
 1/5 narrowest form dimension
 1/3 depth of slab
 3/4 minimum distance between
reinforcement bars

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Concrete Mixing and
Proportioning

 Aggregate Strength
 Strong aggregates: quartzite, felsite
 Weak aggregates: sandstone, marble
 Intermediate strength: limestone, granite

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