LEARNING PERSPECTIVES
CS 295.016
Raymund Abasolo, Sarah Mendoza, Reagan Austria
constructivism
“a learning or meaning-
making theory, that offers an
explanation of the nature of
knowledge and how human
beings learn” (Abdal-Haqq, 1998)
constructivism
key people
constructivism
Jean Piaget
• Swiss cognitive
psychologist
• child development
research
• cognitive development st
ages
• the basis of learning is
discovery
constructivism
Jerome S. Bruner (1915- )
• one of the best known and
influential psychologists of
the twentieth century.
• one of the key figures in the
so called 'cognitive
revolution'
• has great influence in the
field of education
constructivism
Lev Vygotsky
• a Soviet psychologist
and the founder of
cultural-historical psych
ology
• "
Zone of proximal develo
pment
" (ZPD)
o range of tasks that are too
difficult for the child to master
alone but that can be learned
with guidance and assistance
of adults or more-skilled
constructivism
John Dewey
• led the progressive
movement in American
education
• instruction needs to be
centered around
activities that are
meaningful to students'
experiences
constructivism
characteristics
ideas and concepts
constructivism
"Only by wrestling with the conditions of the
problem at hand, seeking and finding his own
solution (not in isolation but in correspondence
with the teacher and other pupils) does one learn."
~ John Dewey, How We Think, 1910 ~
constructivism
• learning is an active process in which learners
construct new ideas or concepts based upon their
current/past knowledge (Bruner)
• cognitive structure provides meaning and
organization to experiences and allows the individual
to "go beyond the information given"
http://tip.psychology.org/bruner.html
constructivism
• learner is at the center of the educational stage
• knowledge cannot be handed from one person to
another (teacher to learner), but must be
"constructed" by each learner by interpreting and
reinterpreting a constant flow of information.
• a discovery approach based on the assumption that
students should build (construct) knowledge for
themselves.
constructivism
teacher roles and learner roles
constructivism
teacher
• encourages students to discover principles by themselves
• engages in an active dialog with learner (i.e., socratic learning)
• facilitates learning by providing a variety of experiences
• serves as a guide, facilitator, and co-explorer who encourages
learners to question, challenge, and formulate their own ideas,
opinions, and conclusions, rather than a dispenser of knowledge
o use scaffolding - questions, clues or suggestions that help a
student link prior knowledge to the new information
constructivism
learner
• engages in an active dialog with teacher (i.e., socratic
learning)
• selects and transforms information, constructs
hypotheses, and makes decisions, relying on a cognitive
structure to do so
constructivism
implications to teaching and
learning
constructivism
Principles:
• Instruction must be concerned with the experiences
and contexts that make the student willing and able
to learn (readiness).
• Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily
grasped by the student (spiral organization).
• Instruction should be designed to facilitate
extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond the
information given).
SOURCE: http://tip.psychology.org/bruner.html
constructivism
• promotes authentic learning, critical thinking,
individualized instruction, and project-based learning
• relies heavily on the students' initiative
• allows students to learn at their own speed
• curriculum should be organized in a spiral manner so
that the student continually builds upon what they have
already learned.
• learning activities are characterized by active
engagement, inquiry, problem solving, and
collaboration with others. "Correct" answers and single
interpretations are de-emphasized.
REFERENCES:
Sadker, M. P. and D. M. Sadker (2005).Teachers, Schools, and Society. 7th edition. Boston : McGraw-Hill.
Lefrancois, G. R. (1994). Psychology for Teaching. 8th edition. California : Wadsworth Publishing Company.
"Lev Vygotsky - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia." Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 July 2010.
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky>.
"IDKB - Models/Theories." George Mason University Classweb. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 July 2010.
<http://classweb.gmu.edu/ndabbagh/Resources/IDKB/models_theories.htm>.
Moore, Julie. "Learning Theory Fundamentals." Encyclopedia of Educational Technology. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 July 2010. www.etc.edu.cn/eet/eet/.
"Jerome Bruner and the Process of Education". The Encyclopaedia of Informal Education . N.p., n.d. Web. 23 July 2010.
http://www.infed.org/thinkers/bruner.htm.
"IDKB - Models/Theories." George Mason University Classweb. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 July 2010.
http://classweb.gmu.edu/ndabbagh/Resources/IDKB/models_theories.htm.
"Emerging Perspectives on Learning, Teaching and Technology." Projects Server Introduction. University of Georgia, Association for Educational
Communications and Technology, n.d. Web. 24 July 2010. http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Main_Page.
Thanasoulas, Dimitrios "Constructivist Learning." SEAsite - SE Asian Languages and Cultures. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 July 2010.
<http://www.seasite.niu.edu/Tagalog/Teachers_Page/Language_Learning_Articles/constructivist_learning.htm>.
Ismat , Abdal-Haqq. "Constructivism in Teacher Education: Considerations for Those Who Would Link Practice to Theory. ERIC Digest. ."
ERICDigests.Org - Providing full-text access to ERIC Digests. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 July 2010. <http://www.ericdigests.org/1999-3/theory.htm>.
"Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning." THIRTEEN - New York Public Media. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Aug. 2010.
<http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/index.html>.
Jones, M. Gail , and L. Brader-Araje. "The Impact of Constructivism on Education: Language, Discourse, and Meaning." American Communication
Journal 5.3 (2002): n. pag. American Communication Journal. Web. 2 Aug. 2010.
Grow, Gerald. "Cognitive Model of Learning." Longleaf Publications home page. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Aug. 2010.
<http://www.longleaf.net/ggrow/StrategicReader/StratModel.html>.
Archives Jean Piaget . Web. 2 Aug. 2010. <www.archivespiaget.ch >.
Cognitivism
Raymund Abasolo
Reagan Austria
Sarah Mendoza
Short Intro
Etymology (meriam-webster online)
cog·ni·tion
Pronunciation: \käg-ni-shən\
Etymology: from Latin word “cognoscere” meaning – to come to
know, investigate
cog·ni·tive
1 : of, relating to, being, or involving conscious intellectual activity
2 : based on or capable of being reduced to empirical factual
knowledge
• Cognitive learning is about enabling people to
learn by using their reason, intuition and
perception.
Characteristics
Ideas and Concepts
• challenge the limitations of behaviorism
o people are not “programmed animals” that merely
respond to environmental stimuli,
• focus more on the internal processes and connections
that take place during learning.
• Focus is on how learners remember, retrieve, and store
information in memory
• Examines the mental structure and processes related
to learning
Key People
• Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin
• Frederic Bartlett
• David Ausubel
• Robert Gagne
• Charles M.Reigeluth
Atkinson - Shriffin
• proposed a model of human memory
• Identified 3 memory stores:
o Sensory memory
o Short Term memory or working memory
o Long term memory
Frederic Bartlett
• developed the Schema theory
• views organized knowledge as an elaborate network of
abstract mental structures which represent one's
understanding of the world.
• Schema - internal knowledge structure. New information
is compared to existing cognitive structures called
"schema". Schema may be combined, extended or altered
to accommodate new information. (schemata - plural)
• Schemata grow and change as new information is
acquired.
A diagram that describes how a person's schema of "egg" might
include the components shown:
David Ausubel
• He was active in his field between the 1950s and 1970s
• Subsumption Theory
• concerned with how individuals learn large amounts of
meaningful material from verbal/textual presentations in a school
setting
• Main Principles:
o most general ideas of a subject should be presented first
o differentiated in terms of detail and specificity
o prior knowledge is essential for the comprehension of new information
o Advance Organizers
An advance organizer is information that is presented prior to learning
and that can be used by the learner to organize and interpret new
incoming information
Expository - describe the new content.
Narrative - presents the new information in the form of a story to
students.
Skimming - used to look over the new material and gain a basic
overview.
Graphic organizer - visuals to set up or outline the new information.
Concept mapping
Robert Gagne
• Conditions of Learning
• learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized in a
hierarchy according to complexity: stimulus recognition,
response generation, procedure following, use of
terminology,
• outlines nine instructional events and corresponding
cognitive processes:
(1) gaining attention (reception)
(2) informing learners of the objective (expectancy)
(3) stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)
(4) presenting the stimulus (selective perception)
(5) providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)
(6) eliciting performance (responding)
(7) providing feedback (reinforcement)
(8) assessing performance (retrieval)
(9) enhancing retention and transfer (generalization).
Example:
The following example illustrates a teaching sequence
corresponding to the nine instructional events for the objective,
Recognize an equilateral triangle:
1. Gain attention - show variety of computer generated triangles
2. Identify objective - pose question: "What is an equilateral
triangle?"
3. Recall prior learning - review definitions of triangles
4. Present stimulus - give definition of equilateral triangle
5. Guide learning- show example of how to create equilateral
6. Elicit per formance - ask students to create 5 different
examples
7. Provide feedback - check all examples as correct/incorrect
8. Assess performance- provide scores and remediation
9. Enhance retention/transfer - show pictures of objects and ask
students to identify equilaterals
Charles M.Reigeluth
• elaboration theory
• a model for sequencing and organizing courses of instruction
• instruction should be organized in increasing order of
complexity
• instructions are made of layers
o each layer elaborates on the previously presented idea
o by elaborating the previous layer, it reiterates and as an
effect it improves memory retention
Elaboration theory proposes seven major strategy components:
1. An elaborative sequence
- choose organizing structure: (conceptual, procedural,
theoretical)
• Learning prerequisite sequences
-learner's background
• Summary
• Synthesis
- integration of previously presented ideas
• Analogies
- relate to the learners field of experience
• Cognitive strategies
-embedded/ detached cues
• Learner control
- learner's motivation and relevance
Teacher Roles
• use of graphic organizers and concept maps to “offer
students the concrete experience needed for cognitive
learning to take place”
• use technology in the classroom to allow exploration
and attract attention
• understand the learner's background
• present ideas in an increasing order of complexity
• ask questions that will guide, and trigger learner's mind
Learner Roles
• do not simply know and memorize.
• connecting and organizing knowledge around
important concept
Other Concepts:
• Practicing or rehearsing improves retention especially
when it is distributed practice.
• Serial Position Effects - It is easier to remember items
from the beginning or end of a list rather than those in
the middle of the list, unless that item is distinctly
different.
• Meaningful Effects - Meaningful information is easier to
learn and remember
• Organization Effects - When a learner categorizes input
such as a grocery list, it is easier to remember.
• you can't force someone to learn
Reference:
• Martin, S. (2006). Definition of Cognitive Learning. Retrieved July 16, 2010 from:
http://ezinearticles.com/?Definition-of-Cognitive-Learning&id=365039
• Instrctional Design Knowledge Base (2006). Instructional Models. Retrieved July
16, 2010 from:
http://classweb.gmu.edu/ndabbagh/Resources/IDKB/models_theories.htm
• Ho, Wenyi (). Cognitive Theories of Learning. Retrieved July 16, 2010 from:
http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/w/x/wxh139/cognitive_1.htm#gestalt
• Learning-Theories.com (2008). Cognitivism. Retrieved July 20, 2010 from:
http://www.learning-theories.com/cognitivism.html
• Kearsley, Greg (2010). Subsumption Theory (D.Ausubel). Retrieved July 20,
2010 from: http://tip.psychology.org/ausubel.html
• Kearsley, ACT * J.Anderson. Retrieved July 20, 2010 from:
http://tip.psychology.org/anderson.html
• Kearsley, Greg (2010). Conditions of Learning (Gagne). Retrieved July 20, 2010
from: http://tip.psychology.org/gagne.html
• Wikipedia. (2010). Advance Organizers. Retrieved July 21, 2010 from
http://wik.ed.uiuc.edu/index.php/Advance_organizers
• Abott, Bruce (2009). Human Memory. Retrieved July 21, 2010 from:
http://users.ipfw.edu/abbott/120/AtkinsonShifrin.html
• Sabine, Reljic (2010). Elaboration Theory. Retrieved July 21, 2010 from:
http://www.slideshare.net/sreljic/elaboration-theory
BEHAVIORISM
Raymund Abasolo
Reagan Austria
Sarah Mendoza
BEHAVIORISM: concepts
• Tries to explain behaviors – observable
and predictable responses
• SR (stimulus-response) theory
• tabula rasa – blank slate
• behavior can be learned or unlearned
• repeated behavior becomes an automatic
response
• memory is associated with events
BEHAVIORISM: concepts
• STIMULUS
• RESPONSE
• REINFORCEMENT
• PUNISHMENT
• BEHAVIORAL MODIFICATION
BEHAVIORISM: concepts
• Classical conditioning –learning
thru stimulus substitution.
• Watson’s behaviorism
• Connectionism
• Operant Conditioning
• Social Learning Theory
KEY PEOPLE
IVAN PAVLOV
• physiologist known
for classical
conditioning.
• EXPERIMENT:
Involves a food, a
dog and a bell
IMAGE SOURCE:
http://kentsimmons.uwinnipeg.ca/16cm05/1116/pavlov.jpg
IMAGE SOURCE: http://www.northern.ac.uk/learning/NCMaterial/Psychology/lifespan%20folder/PAVLOV.gif
JOHN WATSON
• father of Behaviorism
• 1913 article "Psychology as the Behaviorist
Views It “
• humans are born with a few reflexes
• emphasized the importance of learning and
environmental influences in human
development
JOHN WATSON
The Little Albert Experiment:
• Albert is not afraid of rats
• Rat is paired with loud noise
• Albert is frightened by the sound
• Albert is afraid of rats
• Albert is afraid of white, furry objects
• Reversing the experience
Twelve Infants Quote
IMAGE SOURCE: http://www.nndb.com/people/078/000030985/john-b-watson-1-sized.jpg
EDWARD L. THORNDIKE
• Known for SR
BOND/CONNECTION
theory
EXPERIMENT
• cat is placed inside a cage
with a lock.
• cat opens the cage by
accident.
• experiment was repeated,
cat behaves the same way
• opens the cage faster
IMAGE SOURCE: http://www-distance.syr.edu/thorndike.gif
EDWARD L. THORNDIKE
3 PRIMARY LAWS
• law of exercise/repetition:
Repetition = retention
• law of effect
pleasure and pain principle)
• law of readiness
Some connections are more predisposed to
happen
Burrhus Frederic Skinner
• Learning is based on
the effects of behavior
(reinforcement and
punishment)
• OPERANT – random
behavior; not caused
by any stimulus
IMAGE SOURCE:
http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_d8ls7V72AkA/SyvENnrkplI/AAAAAAAAAV4/KuXaFC9ylbc/S700
skinner-80s-smiling%5B1%5D.jpg
Burrhus Frederic Skinner
OPERANT CONDITIONING
• positive reinforcement (reward)
Peter is given a jelly bean for being good.
• Presenting unpleasant stimulus (punishment I)
Peter’s nose was tweaked for being bad.
• punishment II (penalty)
Peter’s jelly bean is taken away for being bad
• negative reinforcement (relief)
Peter’s nose is released because he said sorry
B. F. Skinner
• Skinner Box
• "engineer the
environment and
you can engineer
human behavior”
IMAGE SOURCE: http://mrbakerrocks.info/IMAGES/SkinnerRat.jpg
BF SKINNER
ALBERT BANDURA
• psychologist doing a study on
adolescent aggression
• focused on learning,
modeling, and imitation
• BoBo Doll Study (1961)
• departed from behaviorism
• Social cognitivism
IMAGE SOURCE:http://www.psychnews.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2008/05/bozo-300x300.jpg
ALBERT BANDURA
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
• Human learning is a function
of observation and imitation.
• Steps in the modeling
process:
Attention > Retention > Reproduction > Motivation
BEHAVIORISM
in
EDUCATION
TEACHER ROLES
• Teacher – centered
• focuses on a new behavioral pattern being
repeated until it becomes automatic
• providing stimulus material and prompting
the correct response
• view errors as not enough conditioning
• model
STUDENT ROLES
• Passive listeners
• receiver of the information response
until the behavioral change is
permanent
• absorb instructional presentations and
material, and use them to create
performances which indicate
attainment of correct mental models
IMPLICATIONS
• Behaviorism is seen in direct
instruction
• students learn their attitudes toward
school, subjects due to classical
conditioning
• Rewarding correct trials
• Carefully chosen reinforcement
improves learning
IMPLICATIONS
• Shaping is useful in classroom
management
• Modeling and learning
• Monitoring and feedback
REFERENCES
Sadker, M. P. and D. M. Sadker (2005).Teachers, schools, and sSociety. Seventh
edition. Boston : McGraw-Hill.
Lefrancois, G. R. (1994). Psychology for teaching. 8th edition. California : Wadsworth
Publishing Company.
Mergel, B. (1998). Instructional design & learning theory. Retrieved 12 July 2010
from http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm
Steele, M.M. (2005, April 30). Teaching students with learning disabilities: Constructivism
or behaviorism? Current Issues in Education [On-line], 8(10).
Available:http://cie.ed.asu.edu/ volume8/number10/
"IDKB - models/theories." George Mason University Classweb. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 July
2010. <http://classweb.gmu.edu/ndabbagh/Resources/IDKB/models_theories.htm>.
Instructional design approaches. (n.d.). UW Departments Web Server. Retrieved July 24,
2010, from http://depts.washington.edu/eproject/Instructional%20Design
%20Approaches.htm
Definitions and perspectives of learning:. (n.d.). TeachNet. Retrieved July 24, 2010, from
http://teachnet.edb.utexas.edu/~lynda_abbott/behaviorism.html
