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Switching

This document discusses pulse code modulation (PCM), a technique for analog to digital conversion. PCM involves three main steps: 1) sampling the analog signal at regular intervals, 2) quantizing the sampled signal amplitudes into discrete levels, and 3) encoding the quantized values as binary digits. The sampling rate must be at least twice the highest frequency in the signal according to the Nyquist theorem. Quantization maps the sampled amplitudes to a finite set of levels, introducing quantization error. More quantization levels reduce the error but increase the bit rate required to encode the signal. The bit rate and bandwidth needs depend on the number of bits per sample and sampling frequency.

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Pikesh Patel
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29 views

Switching

This document discusses pulse code modulation (PCM), a technique for analog to digital conversion. PCM involves three main steps: 1) sampling the analog signal at regular intervals, 2) quantizing the sampled signal amplitudes into discrete levels, and 3) encoding the quantized values as binary digits. The sampling rate must be at least twice the highest frequency in the signal according to the Nyquist theorem. Quantization maps the sampled amplitudes to a finite set of levels, introducing quantization error. More quantization levels reduce the error but increase the bit rate required to encode the signal. The bit rate and bandwidth needs depend on the number of bits per sample and sampling frequency.

Uploaded by

Pikesh Patel
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Digital Transmission

4-2 ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION

A digital signal is superior to an analog signal because


it is more robust to noise and can easily be recovered,
corrected and amplified. For this reason, the tendency
today is to change an analog signal to digital data. In
this section we describe two techniques, pulse code
modulation and delta modulation.

Topics discussed in this section:


 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
PCM
 PCM consists of three steps to digitize an
analog signal:
1. Sampling
2. Quantization
3. Binary encoding
 Before we sample, we have to filter the
signal to limit the maximum frequency of
the signal as it affects the sampling rate.
 Filtering should ensure that we do not
distort the signal, ie remove high frequency
components that affect the signal shape.
Figure 4.21 Components of PCM encoder
Sampling
 Analog signal is sampled every TS secs.
 Ts is referred to as the sampling interval.
 fs = 1/Ts is called the sampling rate or
sampling frequency.
 There are 3 sampling methods:
 Ideal - an impulse at each sampling instant
 Natural - a pulse of short width with varying
amplitude
 Flattop - sample and hold, like natural but with
single amplitude value
 The process is referred to as pulse amplitude
modulation PAM and the outcome is a signal
with analog (non integer) values
Figure 4.22 Three different sampling methods for PCM
Note

According to the Nyquist theorem, the


sampling rate must be
at least 2 times the highest frequency
contained in the signal.
Figure 4.23 Nyquist sampling rate for low-pass and bandpass signals
Quantization
 Sampling results in a series of pulses of
varying amplitude values ranging between
two limits: a min and a max.
 The amplitude values are infinite between the
two limits.
 We need to map the infinite amplitude values
onto a finite set of known values.
 This is achieved by dividing the distance
between min and max into L zones, each of
height 
 = (max - min)/L
Quantization Levels

 The midpoint of each zone is assigned a


value from 0 to L-1 (resulting in L
values)
 Each sample falling in a zone is then
approximated to the value of the
midpoint.
Quantization Zones
 Assume we have a voltage signal with
amplitutes Vmin=-20V and Vmax=+20V.
 We want to use L=8 quantization levels.
 Zone width = (20 - -20)/8 = 5
 The 8 zones are: -20 to -15, -15 to -10,
-10 to -5, -5 to 0, 0 to +5, +5 to +10,
+10 to +15, +15 to +20
 The midpoints are: -17.5, -12.5, -7.5, -
2.5, 2.5, 7.5, 12.5, 17.5
Figure 4.26 Quantization and encoding of a sampled signal
Quantization Error
 When a signal is quantized, we introduce an
error - the coded signal is an approximation
of the actual amplitude value.
 The difference between actual and coded
value (midpoint) is referred to as the
quantization error.
 The more zones, the smaller  which results
in smaller errors.
 BUT, the more zones the more bits required
to encode the samples -> higher bit rate
Bit rate and bandwidth
requirements of PCM
 The bit rate of a PCM signal can be calculated form
the number of bits per sample x the sampling rate
Bit rate = nb x fs
 The bandwidth required to transmit this signal
depends on the type of line encoding used. Refer to
previous section for discussion and formulas.
 A digitized signal will always need more bandwidth
than the original analog signal. Price we pay for
robustness and other features of digital transmission.

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