Topics to be Discussed
Superposition Theorem.
Thevenin’s Theorem.
Norton’s Theorem.
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem.
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem for AC
Circuits.
Millman’s Theorem.
Reciprocity Theorem.
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 1
Network Theorems
Some special techniques, known as network
theorems and network reduction methods, have
been developed.
These drastically reduce the labour needed to
solve a network.
These also provide simple conclusions and good
insight into the problems.
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 2
Superposition Principle
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 3
Superposition Theorem
The response (current or voltage) in a linear network
at any point due to multiple sources (current and/or
emf) (including linear dependent sources),
can be calculated by summing the effects of each
source considered separately,
all other sources “turned OFF” or “made
inoperative”.
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 4
“Turning off” the sources
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 5
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 6
Linear Dependent Source
It is a source whose output current or voltage is
proportional only to the first power of some current
or voltage variable in the network or to the sum of
such quantities.
Examples :
v s 0.6i1 16v 2 is linear,
but, v s 0.6i
2
1 or
v s 0.6i1v 2 is not linear.
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 7
Application
Problem : Consider two 1-V batteries in
series with a 1-Ω resistor. Let us apply the
principle of superposition, and find the
power delivered by both the batteries.
Solutions : Power delivered by only one
source working at a time is
P1 = 1 W
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 8
Therefore, the power delivered by both the
sources,
P = 2P1 = 2 W
The above answer is obviously wrong,
because it is a wrong application of
the superposition theorem.
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 9
Example 1
Find the current I in the network given,
using the superposition theorem.
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 10
Solution :
0.5 0.3 0.15
I1 0.375 A
0.1 0.3 0.4
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 11
80 10 3
I2 0.2 A
0.1 0.3
I I 1 I 2 0.175 A
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 12
Example 2
Using superposition theorem, find current ix in the
network given.
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 13
Solution :
10
i1 0.05A
50 150
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 14
150
i2 40 30 A
50 150
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 15
50
i3 120 30 A
50 150
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 16
ix i1 i2 i3
0.05 30 30
0.05 A
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 17
Benchmark Example 3
Find voltage v across 3-Ω resistor by applying
the principle of superposition.
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 18
Solution :
Using current divider,
1 2
i 4 A
1 (2 3) 3
v4 i R (2/3 A) (3 Ω) 2.0 V
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 19
Using current-divider, the voltage v5 across 3-Ω
1
v5 5 A (3 ) 2.5V
1 (2 3)
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 20
By voltage divider,
3
v6 6 3.0 V
1 2 3
v v4 v5 v6 2.0 2.5 3.0 2.5 V
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 21
Example 4
Find current i2 across R2 resistor by applying the
principle of superposition. Where R1=R2=R3=1-Ω
and VS=10V, Vb= 5V, α = 2.
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems 22
Thevenin’s Theorem
It was first proposed by a French telegraph
engineer, M.L. Thevenin in 1883.
There also exists an earlier statement of the
theorem credited to Helmholtz.
Hence it is also known as Helmholtz-Thevenin
Theorem.
It is useful when we wish to find the response
only in a single resistance in a big network.
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 23
Thevenin’s Theorem
Any two terminals AB of a network
composed of linear passive and active
elements may by replaced by a simple
equivalent circuit consisting of
1. an equivalent voltage source Voc, and
2. an equivalent resistance Rth in series.
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 24
The voltage Voc is equal to the potential
difference between the two terminals AB caused
by the active network with no external
resistance connected to these terminals.
The series resistance Rth is the equivalent
resistance looking back into the network at the
terminals AB with all the sources within the
network made inactive, or dead.
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 25
Illustrative Example 3
Using Thevenin’s theorem, find the current in
resistor R2 of 2 Ω.
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 26
Solution :
1. Designate the resistor R2 as “load”.
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 27
2. Pull out the load resistor and enclose the remaining
network within a dotted box.
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 28
3. Temporarily remove the load resistor R2, leaving
the terminals A and B open .
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 29
4. Find the open-circuit voltage across the terminals A-
B,
28 7 21
I 4.2 A;
4 1 5
VAB 7 4.2 1 11.2 V
5. This is called Thevenin voltage, VTh = VAB = 11.2 V.
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 30
6. Turn OFF all the sources in the circuit
Find the resistance between terminals A and B. This is
the Thevenin resistance, RTh. Thus,
1 4
RTh 1 || 4 0.8 Ω
1 4
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 31
7. The circuit within the dotted box is replaced by the
Thevenin’s equivalent, consisting of a voltage source of
VTh in series with a resistor RTh,
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 32
8. The load resistor R2 is again connected to Thevenin’s
equivalent forming a single-loop circuit.
• The current I2 through this resistor is easily calculated,
VTh 11.2
I2 4 A
RTh R2 0.8 2
Important Comment
The equivalent circuit replaces the circuit within the
box only for the effects external to the box.
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 33
Example 4
Using Thevenin’s Theorem, find the current in the
ammeter A of resistance 1.5 Ω connected in an
unbalanced Wheatstone bridge shown.
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 34
Solution :
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 35
12
I1 0.75 A and
12 4
12
I2 1.5 A
26
Voc VAB VAD VBD
0.75 4 1.5 6 6 V
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 36
Ans. -1 A
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 37
Benchmark Example 5
Again consider our benchmark example to determine
voltage across 3-Ω resistor by applying Thevenin’s
theorem.
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 38
Solution :
• We treat the 3-Ω resistor as load.
• Thevenin voltage VTh is the open-circuit voltage
(with RL removed).
• We use source transformation.
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 39
VTh 5 1 5 V
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 40
To compute RTh, we turn off all the sources in the
circuit within box and get the circuit
Thus, RTh = 3 Ω.
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 41
3
VL 5 2.5 V
33
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 42
Norton’s Theorem
It is dual of Thevenin’s Theorem.
A two terminal network containing linear
passive and active elements can be replaced
by an equivalent circuit of a constant-
current source in parallel with a resistance.
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 43
The value of the constant-current source is
the short-circuit current developed when
the terminals of the original network are
short circuited.
The parallel resistance is the resistance
looking back into the original network with
all the sources within the network made
inactive (as in Thevenin’s Theorem).
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 44
Example 6
Obtain the Norton’s equivalent circuit with respect to
the terminals AB for the network shown, and hence
determine the value of the current that would flow
through a load resistor of 5 Ω if it were connected
across terminals AB.
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 45
Solution : When terminals A-B are shorted
10 5
I N I1 I 2 2.5 A
5 10
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 46
Turning OFF the sources,
5 10 10
RN Ω
5 10 3
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 47
RN (10 / 3)
IL IN 2.5 1A
RN RL (10 / 3) 5
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 48
Power Transferred to the Load
Consider the circuit :
r
p RL
E (Variable)
Source Load
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 49
p Maximum power is transferred when
RL = r.
pmax
0 RL = r RL
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 50
Proof
2
E
p RL
RL r
dp ( R r ) 2
1 RL 2( RL r ) 1
E 2 L
dRL ( RL r ) 4
For maximizing, we put numerator equal to zero.
( RL r ) ( RL r ) 2 RL 0
r RL 0
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 51
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Maximum power is drawn form a source
when the Load Resistance is equal to the
Source Internal Resistance.
When maximum power transfer condition is
satisfied, we say that the load is matched
with the source.
Under maximum power transfer condition,
the efficiency of the source is only 50 %.
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 52
Available Power
What is the maximum power that a source
of emf E and internal resistance r can
ever deliver ?
Click
2
Ans.
E
4r
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 53
Prove that under maximum power transfer
condition, the efficiency of the source is only
50 %.
2
Po I RL
2 100 %
Pin I ( RL r )
50 %
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 54
Example 7
The open-circuit voltage of a standard car-battery is 12.6
V, and the short-circuit current is approximately 300 A.
What is the available power from the battery ?
Click
Solution : The output impedance of the battery,
Voc 12.6
Ro 0.042
I sc 300
Therefore, the available power Click
2 2 2
V V (12.6)
Pavl Th
oc
945 W
4 RTh 4 Ro 4 0.042
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 55
Millman’s Theorem
A number of parallel voltage sources V1, V2, V3 …,
Vn with internal resistances R1, R2, R3…, Rn,
respectively can be replaced by a single voltage
source V in series with equivalent resistance R.
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 56
Equivalent Circuit
V1G1 V2G2 V3G3 ... VnGn
V
G1 G2 G3 ... Gn
1 1
and R
G G1 G2 G3 ... Gn
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 57
Reciprocity Theorem
In a linear bilateral network, if a voltage source V
in a branch A produces a current I in any other
branch B, then the same voltage source V acting
in the branch B would produce the same current I
in branch.
The ratio V/I is known as the transfer
Click
resistance.
Let us verify the reciprocity theorem by
considering an example.
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 58
Example 8
• In the network shown, find the current in branch B due
to the voltage source of 36 V in branch A.
• Now transfer the voltage source to branch B and find
the current in branch A.
• Is the reciprocity theorem established ?
• 0Also, determine the transfer resistance from branch A
to branch B.
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 59
Solution : The equivalent resistance for the voltage
source,
Req 2 [12 || (3 1)] 4 2 3 4 9
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 60
The current supplied by the voltage source = 36/9 = 4 A.
Using current divider, the current I in branch B,
12
I 4 3A
12 4
Now, transferring the voltage source to branch B,
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 61
The equivalent resistance for the voltage source,
Req 3 [12 || (2 4)] 1 3 4 1 8
The current supplied by the voltage source = 36/8 =
4.5 A. Using current divider, the current I’ in branch
A,
12
I ' 4.5 3A
12 6
The transfer resistance
V 36
Rtr 12 Ω
I 3
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 62
Review
Superposition Theorem.
Thevenin’s Theorem.
Norton’s Theorem.
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem.
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem for AC Circuits.
Millman’s Theorem.
Reciprocity Theorem.
07-12-21 06:13 PM Ch. 4 Network Theorems Next 63
