CS5205: Foundations in

Programming Languages
FP with Haskell

A pure lazy functional language that

embodies many innovative ideas
in language design.

CS5205 Haskell 1
 Haskell

• Advanced programming language – reusable,

abstract, efficient, feature-rich.
• Functions and Expressions
• Values, Types and Lazy evaluation
• Products, Records and Algebraic Types
• Polymorphic Types & Type Classes
• Higher-Order Functions
• Infix operator and sections.

Reference --- A Gentle Introduction to Haskell 98

http://www.haskell.org/tutorial

CS5205 Haskell 2
 Functions

• Function is a black box that converts input to

output. A basis of software component.

…. inputs …. inputs

function function global

vars

…. output …. output

pure impure
CS5205 Haskell 3
 Example of Functions
• Double a given input.
square :: Int -> Int

square x = x*x

• Conversion from fahrenheit to celcius

fahr_to_celcius :: Float -> Float

fahr_to_celcius temp = (temp – 32)/1.8

• A function with multiple results - quotient & remainder

divide :: Int -> Int -> (Int,Int)

divide x y = (div x y, mod x y)

CS5205 Haskell 4
 Expression-Oriented

• Instead of imperative commands/statements, the focus is

on expression.

• Instead of command/statement :
if e1 then stmt1 else stmt2

• We use conditional expressions :

if e1 then e2 else e3

CS5205 Haskell 5
 Expression-Oriented

• An example function:
fact :: Integer -> Integer
fact n = if n=0 then 1
else n * fact (n-1)

• Can use pattern-matching instead of conditional

fact 0 = 1
fact n = n * fact (n-1)

• Alternatively:
fact n = case n of
0 -> 1
a -> a * fact (a-1)

CS5205 Haskell 6
Conditional  Case Construct
• Conditional;
if e1 then e2 else e3

• Can be translated to
case e1 of
True -> e2
False -> e3

• Case also works over data structures (without any extra

primitives)
length xs = case xs of
[] -> 0;
y:ys -> 1+(length ys)

Locally bound variables

CS5205 Haskell 7
 Lexical Scoping
• Local variables can be created by let construct to give
nested scope for the name space. Example:
let y = a+b
f x = (x+y)/y
in f c + f d

• For scope bindings over guarded expressions, we

require a where construct instead:
f x y | x>z = …
| y==z = …
| y<z = ….
where z=x*x

CS5205 Haskell 8
 Layout Rule
• Haskell uses two dimensional syntax that relies on
declarations being “lined-up columnwise”
let y = a+b
f x = (x+y)/y is being parsed as:
in f c + f d
let { y = a+b
; f x = (x+y)/y }
in f c + f d

• Rule : Next character after keywords where/let/of/do

determines the starting columns for declarations.
Starting after this point continues a declaration, while
starting before this point terminates a declaration.

CS5205 Haskell 9
 Expression Evaluation
• Expression can be computed (or evaluated) so that it is
reduced to a value. This can be represented as:
e  ..  v

• We can abbreviate above as:

e * v

• A concrete example of this is:

inc (inc 3)  inc (4)  5

• Type preservation theorem says that:

if e :: t Æ e  v , it follows that v :: t

CS5205 Haskell 10
 Values and Types
• As a purely functional language, all computations are
done via evaluating expressions (syntactic sugar) to
yield values (normal forms as answers).
• Each expression has a type which denotes the set of
possible outcomes.
• v :: t can be read as value v has type t.
• Examples of typings, associating a value with its
corresponding type are:
5 :: Integer
'a' :: Char
[1,2,3] :: [Integer]
('b', 4) :: (Char, Integer)
“cs5” :: String (same as [Char])

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 Built-In Types
• They are not special:
data Char = ‘a’ | ‘b’ | …
data Int = -65532 | … | -1 | 0 | 1 | …. | 65532
data Integer = … | -2 | -1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | …

• Tuples are also built-in.

data (a,b) = M2(a,b)
data (a,b,c) = M3(a,b,c)
data (a,b.c.d) = M4(a,b,c,d)

• List type uses an infix operator:

data [a] = [] | a : [a]

[1,2,3] is short hand for 1 : (2 : (3 : []))

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 User-Defined Algebraic Types
• Can describe enumerations:
data Bool = False | True
data Color = Red | Green | Blue | Violet

• Can also describe a tuple

data Pair = P2 Integer Integer
data Point a = Pt a a
type variable
• Pt is a data constructor with type a -> a -> Point a

Pt 2.0 3.1 :: Point Float

Pt ‘a’ ‘b’ :: Point Char
Pt True False :: Point Bool

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 Recursive Types
• Some types may be recursive:
data Tree a = Leaf a | Branch (Tree a) (Tree a)

• Two data constructors:

Leaf :: a -> Tree a
Branch :: Tree a -> Tree a -> Tree a

• An example function over recursive types:

fringe :: Tree a -> [a]

fringe (Leaf x) = [x]

fringe (Branch left right) = (fringe left) ++
(fringe right)

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 Polymorphic Types
• Support types that are universally quantified in some
way over all types.
• 8 c. [c] denotes a family of types, for every type c, the type
of lists of c.

• Covers [Integer], [Char], [Integer->Integer], etc.

• Polymorphism help support reusable code, e.g

length :: 8 a. [a] -> Integer
length [] = 0
length (x:xs) = 1 + length xs

CS5205 Haskell 15
 Polymorphic Types
• This polymorphic function can be used on list of any type..
length [1,2,3] ) 2
length [‘a’, ’b’, ‘c’] ) 3
length [[1],[],[3]] ) 3

• More examples :
head :: [a] -> a
head (x:xs) = x

tail :: [a] -> [a]

tail (x:xs) = xs

• Note that head/tail are partial functions, while length is

a total function?
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 Principal Types
• Some types are more general than others:
[Char] <: 8 a. [a] <: 8 a. a

• An expression’s principal type is the least general type

that contains all instances of the expression.

• For example, the principal type of head function is

[a]->a, while [b] -> a, b -> a, a are correct but
too general but [Integer] -> Integer is too
specific.

• Principal type can help supports software reusability

with accurate type information.
CS5205 Haskell 17
 Type Synonyms
• It is possible to provide new names for commonly used
types
type String = [Char]
type Person = (Name, Address)
type Name = String
data Address = None | Addr String

• Type synonyms do not define new types, but simply

give new names for existing types.
type AssocList a b = [(a,b)]

• Their use can improve code readability.

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 Type Classes and Overloading
• Parametric polymorphism works for all types. However,
ad-hoc polymorphism works for a class of types and can
systematically support overloading.
• For example, what is the type for (+) operator?
(+) :: a -> a -> a
(+) :: Int -> Int -> Int
(+) :: Float -> Float -> Float

• What about methods built from (+)?

double x = x+x

• Better solution is to use a type class for numerics!

(+) :: Num a => a -> a -> a
double :: Num a => a -> a
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 Equality Class
• Similar issue with equality. Though it looks like:
(==) :: a -> a -> Bool

• Equality can be tested for data structures but not

functions!

• Solution is to define a type class that supports the

equality method, as follows:
class Eq a where
(==),(/=) :: a -> a -> Bool
x /= y = not (x==y)
default definition
• Then: (==) :: Eq a => a -> a -> Bool

CS5205 Haskell 20
 Members of Eq Type Class
• The class is open and can be extended, as follows:
instance Eq Integer where
x == y = x ‘integerEq’ y

instance Eq Float where

x == y = x ‘FloatEq’ y

• Recursive type can also be handled but elements may

need to be given type qualifiers.
instance (Eq a) => Eq (Tree a) where
Leaf a == Leaf b = a==b
(Branch l1 r1) == (Branch l2 r2)
= (l1==l2) && (r1==r2)
_ == _ = False

CS5205 Haskell 21
 More Members of Eq Type Class
• Similarly, we may use structural equality for List:
instance (Eq a) => Eq ([a]) where
[] == [] = True
(x:xs) == (y:ys) = (x==y) && (xs==ys)
_ == _ = False

• One use of Eq class is:

elem :: (Eq a) => a -> [a] -> Bool
x ‘elem’ [] = False
x ‘elem’ (y:ys) = (x==y) || (x ‘elem’ ys)

• Exercise : define Set as an instance of the Eq class.

CS5205 Haskell 22
 Numeric Class
• There is a hierarchy of numeric classes. Most basic is:
class Num a where
(+),(-),(*) :: a -> a -> a
negate,abs,signum :: a -> a
fromInteger :: Integer -> a

x – y = x + (negate y)
negate x = 0 – x

instance Num Int where

…
instance Num Integer where
…
instance Num Float where
…
instance Num Double where
…
CS5205 Haskell 23
 Functions and its Type
• Method to increment its input
inc x = x+1

• Or through lambda expression (anonymous functions)

(\ x -> x+1)

• They can also be given suitable function typing:

inc :: Num a => a -> a
(\x -> x+1) :: Num a => a -> a

• Types can be user-supplied or inferred.

CS5205 Haskell 24
 Functions and its Type
• Some examples
(\x -> x+1) 3.2 

(\x -> x+1) 3 

• User can restrict the type, e.g.

inc :: Int -> Int

• In that case, some examples may be wrongly typed.

inc 3.2 

inc 3 

CS5205 Haskell 25
 Function Abstraction

• Function abstraction is the ability to convert any

expression into a function that is evaluated at a later
time.

<Expr> p = \ () -> Expr

time

time p ()

Normal Execution Delayed Execution

CS5205 Haskell 26
 Higher-Order Functions
• Higher-order programming treats functions as first-class,
allowing them to be passed as parameters, returned as
results or stored into data structures.

• This concept supports generic coding, and allows

programming to be carried out at a more abstract level.

• Genericity can be applied to a function by letting

specific operation/value in the function body to become
parameters.

CS5205 Haskell 27
 Functions
• Functions can be written in two main ways:
add :: Integer -> Integer -> Integer
add x y = x+y

add2 :: (Integer,Integer) -> Integer

add2(x,y) = x+y

• The first version allows a function to be returned as

result after applying a single argument.
inc :: Integer -> Integer
inc = add 1

• The second version needs all arguments. Same effect

requires a lambda abstraction:
inc = \ x -> add2(x,1)
CS5205 Haskell 28
 Functions
• Functions can also be passed as parameters. Example:
map :: (a->b) -> [a] -> [b]
map f [] = []
map f (x:xs) = (f x) : (map f xs)

• Such higher-order function aids code reuse.

map (add 1) [1, 2, 3] ) [2, 3, 4]
map add [1, 2, 3] ) [add 1, add 2, add 3]

• Alternative ways of defining functions:

add = \ x -> \ y -> x+y
add = \ x y -> x+y

CS5205 Haskell 29
 Genericity
• Replace specific entities (0 and +) by parameters.

sumList ls =
case ls of
[] -> 0
x:xs -> x+(sumList xs)

foldr f u ls =
case ls of
[] -> u
x:xs -> f x (foldr f u xs)
CS5205 Haskell 30
 Polymorphic, Higher-Order Types

sumList :: [Int] -> Int

sumList :: Num a => [a] -> a

foldr :: (a -> b -> b) -> b

-> [a] -> b

CS5205 Haskell 31
 Instantiating Generic Functions

sumL2 :: Num a => [a] -> a

sumL2 ls = foldr (+) 0 ls

sumL2 [1, 2, 3] )

sumL2 [1.1, 3, 2.3] )

CS5205 Haskell 32
 Instantiating Generic Functions

prodL :: Num a => [a] -> a

prodL ls = foldr (*) 1 ls

prodL [1, 2, 5] )

prodL [1.1, 3, 2.3] )

CS5205 Haskell 33
 Instantiating Generic Functions
• Can you express map in terms of foldr?
map :: (a -> b) -> [a] -> [b]
map f [] = []
map f (x:xs) = (f x) : (map f xs)

map f xs = foldr … … … xs

CS5205 Haskell 34
 Instantiating Generic Functions
• Filtering a list of elements with a predicate.
filter :: (a -> Bool) -> [a] -> [a]
filter f [] = []
filter f (x:xs) =
if (f x) then x : (filter f xs)
else x : filter f xs

• Can we express filter in terms of foldr?

filter f xs = foldr … … … xs

CS5205 Haskell 35
 Pipe/Compose

compose :: (b -> c) -> (a -> b)

-> a -> c
compose f g = \ x -> f (g x)
g | f = compose f g

• Similar to Unix pipe command:

cmd1 | cmd2

CS5205 Haskell 36
 Iterator Construct

for :: Int -> Int -> (Int -> a -> a)

-> a -> a
for i j f a =
if i>j then a
else f (i+1) j (f i a)

• In Haskell, type class help give a more generic type:

for :: Num b, Ord b => b -> b ->
(b -> a -> a) -> a -> a

CS5205 Haskell 37
 Right Folding

foldr f u [x1,x2,..,xn]

 f x1 (foldr f u [x2 ..xn])

 f x1 (f x2 (fold f u [x3..xn]))

 f x1 (f x2 (… (fold f u [xn]) …))

 f x1 (f x2 (… (f xn u) …)))

associate to
right
CS5205 Haskell 38
 Left Folding – Tail Recursion
• Accumulate result in a parameter:

foldl f u ls =
case ls of
[] -> u
x:xs -> foldl f (f u x) xs

based on accumulation
• What is the type of foldl?

• Can we compute factorial using it?

CS5205 Haskell 39
 Left Folding

foldl f u [x1,x2,..,xn]

 foldl f (f u x1) [x2 ..xn]

 foldl f (f (f u x1) x2) [x3..xn]))

 foldl f (f … (f (f u x1) x2)… xn) []

 f (… (f (f u x1) x2) …) xn

left is here!
CS5205 Haskell 40
 Instance of Left Folding
• Summing a list by accumulation.

sumT acc ls =
case ls of
[] -> 0
x:xs -> sumT (x+acc) xs

sumList ls = sumT 0 ls

sumT acc ls = foldl (+) acc ls

CS5205 Haskell 41
 Infix Operator
• Infix operators are distinguished entirely by symbols:
(++) :: [a]-> [a] -> [a]
[] ++ ys = ys
(x:xs) ++ ys = x : (xs ++ ys)

• Another example is function composition.

(.) :: (b->c) -> (a->b) -> (a->c)
f . g = \ x -> f (g x)

• Infix operator can be coerced to prefix by bracketing,

e.g. map (+) [1,2,3]

• Alphanumeric named function can be made infix too,

e.g. a ‘add’ b x ‘elem’ xs
CS5205 Haskell 42
 Sections
• Infix operators can also be partially applied:
(x+) ´ \y -> x+y
(+y) ´ \x -> x+y
(+) ´ \x y -> x+y

• Other examples:.
inc = (+ 1)
add = (+)

• These are syntactic sugar for programming

conveniences.

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