2-2 Transfer function and impulse-response
function
2. Transfer function
input output
LTI system
x(t) y(t)
Definition: The transfer function of a linear time-
invariant system is defined as the ratio of the
Laplace transform of the output variable to the
Laplace transform of the input variable when all
initial conditions are zero.
Y (s )
G (s )
X (s )
Consider the linear time-invariant system described by
the following differential equation:
dn d n 1 dy
a 0 n y a1 n 1 y an 1 an y
dt dt dt
dm d m 1 dr
b0 m x b1 m 1 x bm 1 bm x , n m
dt dt dt
By definition, the transfer function is
m 1
Y (s ) b0s m bs bm 1s bm
1
: G (s )
X (s ) a 0s n a1s n 1 an 1s an
The advantage of transfer function: It represents
system dynamics by algebraic equations and clearly
shows the input-output relationship:
Y(s)=G(s)X(s)
input output
G(s)
x(t) y(t)
Example. Given a system described by the following
differential equation
d2 d
2
y 2 y 3y u (t )
dt dt
Find its transfer function.
Example. Spring-mass-damper system:
Let the input be the force r(t)
and the output be the
Wall k displacement y(t) of the mass.
friction, Find its transfer function.
b Solution: The system
y
differential equation is
r(t) Force d 2y (t ) dy (t )
M b ky (t ) r (t )
dt dt
from which we obtain its transfer function
Y (s ) 1
R (s ) Ms 2 bs k
Comments on transfer function:
• is limited to LTI systems.
• is an operator to relate the output variable to the input
variable of a differential equation.
• is a property of a system itself, independent of the
magnitude and nature of the input or driving
function.
• does not provide any information concerning the
physical structure of the system. That is, the
transfer functions of many physically different
systems can be identical.
Wall k
friction,
b
y
r(t) Force
R L
u C y
3. Convolution integral
From
Y (s ) G (s )X (s )
and by using the convolution theorem, we have
t
y (t ) g (t )x (t t )d t
0
t
g (t t )x (t )d t
0
where both g(t) and x(t) are 0 for t<0.
Example. Given
1
Y (s ) G (s )R (s ) R (s )
T s 1
with T >0. If R(s)=1/s, find y(t).
Solution: By the definition of convolution integral,
t
1/ T 1
g (t ) L1[ ] e T ,t 0
s 1/ T T
1 1
r (t ) L [ ] 1(t )
Hence, s
t t
1 T1 (t t )
y (t ) g (t t )r (t )d t e 1d t
0
T 0 1
t t t t
t
e T
0 T
e dT
1 e T
,t 0 t
4. Impulse response function
Consider the output (response) of a system to a
unit-impulse input when the initial conditions are zero:
input output
G(s)
(t) y(t)
Hence,
Y (s ) G (s )R (s ) G (s )L (d(t ))
G (s ) 1 G (s )
and y (t ) L1[G (s )]: g (t )
where g(t) is called impulse response function.
An impulse response function g(t) is the inverse
Laplase transform of the system’s transfer function!
Example. Given
Y (s ) G (s )R (s )
(t) y
t R(s) Y(s) t
If
y (t ) e t , t 0
determine the system’s transfer function.
It is hence possible to obtain complete information about
the dynamic characteristics of the system by exciting it
with an impulse input and measuring the response (In
practice, a pulse input with a very short duration can be
considered an impulse).
Example. Let
y
(t) 1 e-t
2
Y(s)
t R(s) t
1
Assume that the system is LTI. Determine its transfer
function.
Example. Let
1
Y (s ) G (s )R (s ) 3 R (s )
s 3s 3s 1
2
Determine its impulse response function.
2-3 Automatic control systems
1. Block Diagrams
Block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation
of the functions performed by each component and of
the flow of signals.
R C
G(s)
C (s )
G (s ) or C (s ) G (s )R (s )
R (s )
2. Block Diagram of a closed-loop system
A real physical system includes more than one
components. The following is a typical feedback
system represented by block diagram:
E
R(s) G(s) C(s)
B(s)
H(s)
where the summing point E(s)=R(s)B(s) and the
branch point are shown below.
E
R(s) Y(s)
B(s) Y(s)
The property of summing point:
R3
R1 E1 C
R2
R3 R3
R1
C R1 C
R2 R2
Example. A network system is shown below, where uc
is the output and ur is the input. Draw its block
diagram.
Solution:
Sept 1. Write the input and output relationship of each
device: i2 C
i
i1
R1i1 = (ur - uc )
R1
ur R2 uc
du R 1 di
i2 = C = CR1 1
dt dt
uc = R 2 (i1 + i 2 )
ur uc
Sept 2. Taking Laplace transform of both sides of the
above equations yields:
R1I 1 (s ) = (U r (s ) - U c (s ))
I 2 (s ) = R1CsI 1 (s )
U c (s ) = R 2 (I 1 (s ) + I 2 (s ))
Sept 3. Rearrange each above equation so that its left-
hand side is the output variable and the right-hand side is
the transfer function multiplied by input signals:
1
I 1 (s ) = [U r (s ) - U c (s )] (1)
R1
I 2 (s ) = R1CsI 1 (s ) (2)
U c (s ) = R 2 [I 1 (s ) + I 2 (s )] (3)
Step 4. Based on (1)-(3), draw the block diagram:
i2 C
ìï 1
ïï I 1 (s ) = [U r (s ) - U c (s )] (1) i
i1
ïï R1
ïï
í I 2 (s ) = R1CsI 1 (s ) (2) R1
ïï ur R2 uc
ïï U c (s ) = R 2 [I 1 (s ) + I 2 (s )] (3)
ïï
ïî
U r (s) 1 I1 ( s ) I 2 ( s) U c (s)
R1Cs R2
R1
U c (s)
Example. A system is described by the
following equations:
x1 r c Draw its block diagram,
where , Ki and T are positive
x 2 t x1 K 1x1
constants, the input and
x 3 K 2x 2 output signals are r and c,
respectively, and x1x5 are
x 4 x 3 x 5 K 5c intermediate variables. .
x 5 K 3x 4
K 4x 5 T c c
r c
Example. A system is described by the following
equations:
Draw its block diagram, where
x1 r c n1
Ki and T are positive constants,
x 2 K 1x 1 the input and output signals are
r and c, respectively, n1, n2 are
x3 x2 x5 disturbances, and x1x5 are
intermediate variables.
T x4 x3
x 5 x 4 K 2n 2
n1 n2
K 0x 5 c c
r c
3. Open-loop transfer function and feedforward
transfer function
E
R(s) G(s) C(s)
B(s)
H(s)
Two important concepts:
Open-loop transfer function: The ratio of the feedback
signal B(s) to the actuating error signal
E(s) is called the open-loop transfer function. That is,
B (s )
G (s )H (s )
E (s )
E
R(s) G(s) C(s)
B(s)
H(s)
Feedforward transfer function: The ratio of the output
C(s) to the actuating error signal E(s) is called the
feedforward transfer function, so that
C (s )
G (s )
E (s )
4. Closed-loop transfer function
E
R(s) G(s) C(s)
C (s ) G (s )E (s ) (1) B(s)
H(s)
E (s ) R (s ) B (s ) R (s ) H (s )C (s ) (2)
Substituting (2) into (2) yields
C (s ) G (s )R (s ) G (s )H (s )C (s ) (3)
from which we obtain the closed-loop transfer function
as
C (s ) G (s )
R (s ) 1 G (s )H (s )
Example. A block diagram of a system is shown below.
Determine its closed-loop transfer function C(s)/R(s).
R (s ) Cm C (s )
s (J m s fm )
B (s )
K bs
5. Obtaining cascaded, parallel, and feedback
transfer functions
a) Cascaded system
R(s) U C(s)
G1(s) G2(s)
R(s) C(s)
G1(s)G2(s)
C (s ) G 2 (s )U (s ) G 2 (s )G1 (s )R (s )
Example. A block diagram of DC motor is shown
below. Determine its open-loop transfer function and
feedforward transfer function.
ua 1 Cm m
Las Ra s (J m s fm )
K bs
Eb
b) Parallel Blocks
R(s) C(s)
G1(s)
G2(s)
R(s) G1 (s ) G 2 (s ) C(s)
C (s ) G1 (s )R (s ) G 2 (s )R (s ) (G1 (s ) G 2 (s ))R (s )
c) Feedback loop
E
R(s) G C(s)
H
G (s )
R(s) C(s)
1 G (s )H (s )
G (s )
C (s ) R (s )
1 G (s )H (s )
Diagram simplification: Moving a summing point
ahead of a block:
X 3( s )
G(s )
X 1( s ) +
X 2( s )
X 1( s )
G(s )
X 3(s )
+
1 X 2(s )
G(s )
Diagram simplification : Moving a summing point
behind a block:
X 1( s )
G( s )
X 3( s )
-
X 2( s )
X 1(s ) X 3(s )
G(s )
-
X 2(s )
G(s )
Example. Simplify the following block diagram. Then
obtain the closed-loop transfer function Eo(s)/Ei(s).
Ei I1 U ab I2 Eo
G1 (s ) G 2 (s ) G 3 (s ) G 4 (s )
U ab
If there exists a branch point between two summing
points, do not move summing point.
Diagram simplification: Moving a branch point
ahead of a block
X 1( s ) X 2( s )
G(s )
X 3( s )
X 1( s ) X 2( s )
G(s )
X 3( s )
G(s )
Diagram simplification: Moving a branch point
behind of a block
X 1( s ) X 2( s )
G(s )
X 3( s )
X 1( s ) X 2( s )
G(s )
1 X 3( s )
G( s )
Example. Simplify the following block diagram. Then
obtain the closed-loop transfer function Eo(s)/Ei(s).
Ei I1 U ab I2 Eo
G 1 (s ) G 2 (s ) G 3 (s ) G 4 (s )
U ab
Diagram simplification: Examples
Example. The block diagram of a given system is shown
below. Obtain C(s)/R(s).
H 1( s )
-
R(s ) C(s )
G1(s ) G 2( s )
- -
Note that only the movement between two summing points
(two branch points) is valid.
Example. The block diagram of a given system is shown
below. Obtain C(s)/R(s).
G 4(s )
+
R(s ) C(s )
G1(s ) G 2(s ) G 3(s )
- - -
H 2(s )
H 1(s )
If there exists a branch point (summing point) between
two summing points (two branch points), do not move
them.
Example. The block diagram of a given system is shown
below. Obtain the transfer function that relates the output
C(s) in function of the input R(s), i.e., C(s)/R(s).
G3
G1 G2 C(s)
R(s)
H1
Note that only the movement between two summing
points (two branch points) is valid.
G3
R(s) C(s)
G1 G2
H1
G3
C(s)
G1 G2
R(s)
G1 H1
An alternative way to simplify the diagram is
G3
G1 G2
H1
G3
1/G1
G1 G2
H1
Example. The block diagram of a given system is
shown below. Obtain C(s)/R(s).
H2
R G1 G2 G3 G4 C
H1
H3
H2
R G1 G2 G3 G4 C
H1
H3
H2
G4
R G1 G2 G3 G4 C
H1
H3
H2
G4
R G1 G2 G3 G4 C
H1
H3
H2
G4
G3G4
R G1 G2 C
1 G3G4 H1
H3
H2
G4
G3G4
R G1 G2 C
1 G3G4 H1
H3
G2G3G4
R G1 C
1 G3G4 H1 G2G3 H 2
H3
G2G3G4
R G1 C
1 G3G4 H1 G2G3 H 2
H3
G1G2G3G4
R C
1 G3G4 H1 G2G3 H 2 G1G2G3G4 H 3
Example. Block reduction: Redrawing block
diagram. Consider the following diagram. With
redrawing the diagram, the simplification can be
proceeded.
G4
G1 G2 G3
H1 H3
G4
G1 G2 G3
H1 H3
G4
G1 G2 G3
H1 H3
H1 H3
Example. The block diagram of a system is shown below.
Obtain C(s)/R(s).
R (s ) C (s )
G 1 (s )
+
G 2 (s )
G 3 (s )
5. The Mason’ Formula (supplement material)
C (s ) 1 N
Pk k
R (s ) k 1
• = the characteristic polynomial of the system
=1Li+LiLj LiLjLk+;
• Li=transfer function of the ith loop;
• LiLj=product of transfer functions of two non-
touching loops;
• LiLjLk=product of transfer functions of three non-
touching loops;
• LiLjLkLl…..;
C (s ) 1 N
Pk k
R (s ) k 1
1 Li Li L j Li L j Lk
• N=total number of forward paths (from R(s) to C(s)
without visiting a point more than once);
• Pk=transfer function of kth forward path;
• k= the cofactor of the kth forward path with the
loops touching the kth forward path removed.
Example. Determine the characteristic polynomial of
the following block diagram:
Ei I1 U ab I2 Eo
G 1 (s ) G 2 (s ) G 3 (s ) G 4 (s )
U ab
Example. The block diagram of a given system is shown
below. Determine its characteristic poly-nomial, forward
paths and cofactors.
G4
R C
G1 G2 G3
H2
H1
Example. For the following block diagram, find
C(s)/R(s).
H 4(s )
-
R(s ) C(s )
G1(s ) G 2(s ) G 3(s ) G 4(s )
- -
H 3(s )
H 2(s )
+
-
H 1(s )
Solution: By using Mason’s formula,
Only one forward path: P1 =G1G2G3G4
L1 G2G3 H 3
Four individual loops: L G G G H
2 1 2 3 2
L3 G1G2G3G4 H1
No nontouching loops,
therefore, L4 G3G4 H 4
1 ( L1 L2 L3 L4 )
The cofactor is: 1 1
n
Consequently, P
C k 1 k k
=
R
G1G2G3G4
1 G2G3 H 3 G1G2G3 H 2 G3G4 H 4 G1G2G3G4 H1
6. Closed-loop systems subjected to a disturbance
By principle of superposition, let, respectively,
R(s)=0 and D(s)=0 and calculate the corres-ponding
outputs CD(s) and CR(s). Then,
C= CD(s) +CR(s)
D
R(s) C(s)
G1(s) G2(s)
H(s)
G 2 (s ) G1 (s )G 2 (s )
C (s ) = D (s ) + R (s )
1 + G1 (s )G 2 (s )H (s ) 1 + G1 (s )G 2 (s )H (s )
Example. The block diagram of a given system is
shown below. Obtain C(s)/R(s) and C(s)/D(s).
Gf (s) D( s)
C (s)
_ Gc (s) G1(s) Gp(s)
R(s)
H
Summary of Chapter 2
In this chapter, we mainly studied the following
issues:
1. Laplace transformation and the related theorems.
2. Transfer function:
m 1
C (s ) b0s m bs bm 1s bm
G (s ) : 1
R (s ) a 0s n a1s n 1 an 1s an
from which we know that
• C(s)=G(s)R(s);
• In time domain, the above equation represents a
convolution integral:
t
c (t ) g (t t )r (t )d t
0
where g(t)=1[G(s)].
• In particular, if r(t)=(t),
c(t)=1[G(s)],
that is, the impulse response is the inverse Laplase
transform of its transfer function.
3. Block diagram:
Note that only one block is less meaning. However,
with a block diagram, the interrelationship between
components and the signal flows can be revealed
pictorially compared with the mathematical expression
of a set of equations; for instance:
Gf (s) D( s)
C (s)
_ Gc (s) G1(s) Gp(s)
R(s)
H
4. Block diagram simplification (reduction):
• feedback;
• cascade;
• parallel;
• moving between two summing (branch) points;
• redrawing the block diagram for some special cases.
By using diagram simplification techniques, one can
finally obtain, no matter how complex a system may
be,
Cr(s)=G(s)R(s);
Cd(s)=(s)D(s).
Based on which, system analysis can be proceeded.
