Lecture 2-3

C++ Basic Constructs

 Contents
• Console Input and Output
• C++ Tokens
• Type Casting
• Control Structures
Console Input and Output
 Console Input / Output
• I/O objects cin, cout
• Defined in the C++ library called <iostream>
• Must have these lines (called pre- processor
directives) near start of file:
– #include <iostream>
using namespace std;
– Tells C++ to use appropriate library so we can
use the I/O objects cin, cout
 Console Output

Output using Insertion Operator

**cout: Standard Output Stream
 Console Output
• What can be outputted?
– Any data can be outputted to display screen
• Variables
• Constants
• Literals
• Expressions (which can include all of above)
– cout << numberOfGames << " games played.";
2 values are outputted:
"value" of variable numberOfGames,
literal string " games played."
• Cascading: multiple values in one cout
 Separating Lines of Output
• New lines in output
– Recall: "\n" is escape sequence for the
char "newline"
• A second method: object endl
• Examples:
cout << "Hello World\n";
• Sends string "Hello World" to display, & escape sequence "\n",
skipping to next line
cout << "Hello World" << endl;
• Same result as above
 Input Using cin
• cin for input, cout for output
• Differences:
– ">>" (extraction operator) points opposite
• Think of it as "pointing toward where the data goes"
– Object name "cin" used instead of "cout"
– No literals allowed for cin
• Must input "to a variable"

• cin >> num;

– Waits on-screen for keyboard entry
– Value entered at keyboard is "assigned" to num
 Console Input

Input using Extraction Operator

**cin: Standard Input Stream
 Prompting for Input: cin and cout
• Always "prompt" user for input
cout << "Enter number of dragons: ";
cin >> numOfDragons;
– Note no "\n" in cout. Prompt "waits" on same
line for keyboard input as follows:

Enter number of dragons: ____

• Underscore above denotes where keyboard entry

is made
 Namespaces
• Namespaces defined:
– Collection of name definitions
• For now: interested in namespace "std"
– Has all standard library definitions we need
• Examples:
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
• Includes entire standard library of name definitions
• #include <iostream>using std::cin;
using std::cout;
• Can specify just the objects we want
C++ Tokens
 C++ Tokens
Tokens are the minimal chunk of program that have meaning to the
compiler – the smallest meaningful symbols in the language.
C++ Keywords
 C++ Identifiers
• User defined names
• Rules
– An identifier can consist of alphabets, digits and/or
underscores.
– It must not start with a digit.
– C++ is case sensitive i.e., upper case and lower
case letters are considered differently.
– It should not be a reserved word/ declared
keyword.
C++ Identifiers
 C++ Variables
– A memory location to store data for a program
– Must declare all data before use in program
Simple Data Types (1 of 2)
Simple Data Types: (2 of 2)
 Literal Data
• Literals
– Examples:
• 2 // Literal constant int
• 5.75 // Literal constant double
• ‘Z’ // Literal constant char
• "Hello World" // Literal constant string

• Cannot change values during execution

• Called "literals" because you "literally typed"
them in your program!
 Escape Sequences
• "Extend" character set
• Backslash, \ preceding a character
– Instructs compiler: a special "escape character" is
coming
– Following character treated as "escape sequence
char"
Some Escape Sequences (1 of 2)
Some Escape Sequences (2 of 2)
 C++ Constants
• Naming your constants
– Literal constants are "OK", but provide little meaning
• Use named constants instead
– Meaningful name to represent data
const int NUMBER_OF_STUDENTS = 24;
• Called a "declared constant" or "named constant"
• Now use it’s name wherever needed in program
Usage of Named Constant
Different Types of Operators
Precedence of Operators (1 of 4)
Precedence of Operators (2 of 4)
Precedence of Operators (3 of 4)
Precedence of Operators (4 of 4)
 Precedence Examples
• Arithmetic before logical
– x + 1 > 2 || x + 1 < -3 means:
• (x + 1) > 2 || (x + 1) < -3

• Short-circuit evaluation
– (x >= 0) && (y > 1)
– Be careful with increment operators!
• (x > 1) && (y++)

• Integers as boolean values

– All non-zero values  true
– Zero value  false
Type Casting
 Assigning Data
• Initializing data in declaration statement
• int myValue = 0;
• Assigning data during execution
– Lvalues (left-side) & Rvalues (right-side)
• Lvalues must be variables
• Rvalues can be any expression
• Example:
distance = rate * time;
Lvalue: "distance"
Rvalue: "rate * time"
 Data Assignment Rules
• Compatibility of Data Assignments
– Type mismatches
• General Rule: Cannot place value of one type into variable of
another type
– intVar = 2.99; // 2 is assigned to intVar!
• Only integer part "fits", so that’s all that goes
• Called "implicit" or "automatic type conversion"
– Literals
• 2, 5.75, ‘Z’, "Hello World"
• Considered "constants": can’t change in program
 Arithmetic Precision
• Precision of Calculations
– VERY important consideration!
• Expressions in C++ might not evaluate as you’d
"expect"!
– "Highest-order operand" determines type
of arithmetic "precision" performed
– Common pitfall!
 Arithmetic Precision Examples
• Examples:
– 17 / 5 evaluates to 3 in C++!
• Both operands are integers
• Integer division is performed!
– 17.0 / 5 equals 3.4 in C++!
• Highest-order operand is "double type"
• Double "precision" division is performed!
– int intVar1 =1, intVar2=2;
intVar1 / intVar2;
• Performs integer division!
• Result: 0!
 Individual Arithmetic Precision
• Calculations done "one-by-one"
– 1 / 2 / 3.0 / 4 performs 3 separate divisions.
• First 1 / 2 equals 0
• Then 0 / 3.0 equals 0.0
• Then 0.0 / 4 equals 0.0 !!

• So not necessarily sufficient to change just "one

operand" in a large expression
– Must keep in mind all individual calculations that will be
performed during evaluation!
 Type Casting
• Casting for Variables
– Can add ".0" to literals to force precision
arithmetic, but what about variables?
• We can’t use "myInt.0" !
 Type Casting
• Two types
– Implicit—also called "Automatic"
• Done FOR you, automatically
17 / 5.5
This expression causes an "implicit type cast" to take place, casting
the 17  17.0
– Explicit type conversion
• Programmer specifies conversion with cast operator
(double)17 / 5.5
Same expression as above, using explicit cast
(double) myInt / myDouble
More typical use; cast operator on variable
Control Structures
Control Structures
 Branching Mechanisms
• if-else statements
– Choice of two alternate statements based
on condition expression
– Example:
if (hrs > 40)
grossPay = rate*40 + 1.5*rate*(hrs-40);
else
grossPay = rate*hrs;
 if-else Statement Syntax
• Formal syntax:
if (<boolean_expression>)
{
<yes_statement>
}
else
{
<no_statement>
}
 Common Pitfalls
• Operator "=" vs. operator "=="
• One means "assignment" (=)
• One means "equality" (==)
– VERY different in C++!
– Example:
if (x = 12) Note operator used!
Do_Something
else
Do_Something_Else
 Conditional Operator
• Also called "ternary operator"
– Allows embedded conditional in expression
– Essentially "shorthand if-else" operator
– Example:
if (n1 > n2)
max = n1;
else
max = n2;
– Can be written:
max = (n1 > n2) ? n1 : n2;
• "?" and ":" form this "ternary" operator
 Nested Statements
• if-else statements contain smaller statements
– Can also contain any statement at all, including another if-
else stmt!
– Example:
if (speed > 55)
if (speed > 80)
cout << "You’re really speeding!";
else
cout << "You’re speeding.";
– Note proper indenting!
Multiway if-else Example
 The switch Statement
• A new stmt for controlling multiple branches
• Uses controlling expression which returns bool data
type (true or false)
switch Statement Syntax
The switch Statement in Action
 The switch: multiple case labels
• Execution "falls thru" until break
– switch provides a "point of entry"
– Example:
case ‘A’:
case ‘a’:
cout << "Excellent: you got an \" A \" ! \n";
break;
case ‘B’:
case ‘b’:
cout << "Good: you got a \" B \" ! \n";
break;
– Note multiple labels provide same "entry"
 Loops
• 3 Types of loops in C++
– while
• Most flexible
• No "restrictions"

– do-while
• Least flexible
• Always executes loop body at least once

– for
• Natural "counting" loop
while Loops Syntax
do-while Loop Syntax
 while Loop Example
• Consider:
count = 0; // Initialization
while (count < 3) // Loop Condition
{
cout << "Hi "; // Loop Body
count++; // Update expression
}
– Loop body executes how many times?
 do-while Loop Example
count = 0; // Initialization
do
{
cout << "Hi "; // Loop Body
count++; // Update expression
} while (count < 3); // Loop Condition

– Loop body executes how many times?

– do-while loops always execute body at least once!
 for Loop Syntax

for (Init_Action; Bool_Exp; Update_Action)

Body_Statement
OR
for (Init_Action; Bool_Exp; Update_Action)
{
Body_Statements
}
 for Loop Example
• for (count=0;count<3;count++)
{
cout << "Hi "; // Loop Body
}
• How many times does loop body execute?
• Initialization, loop condition and update all "built
into" the for-loop structure!
• A natural "counting" loop
 Nested Loops
• Recall: ANY valid C++ statements can be
inside body of loop
• This includes additional loop statements!
– Called "nested loops"
• Requires careful indenting:

for (outer=0; outer<5; outer++)

for (inner=7; inner>2; inner--)
cout << outer << inner;

– Notice no { } since each body is one statement

 The break and continue Statements
• Flow of Control
– Recall how loops provide "graceful" and clear flow of
control in and out
– In RARE instances, can alter natural flow
• break;
– Forces loop to exit immediately.
• continue;
– Skips rest of loop body
• These statements violate natural flow
– Only used when absolutely necessary!
Thank You