DATA COMMUNICATIONS

The term telecommunication means communication at a

distance. The word data refers to information presented in
whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating and
using the data. Data communications are the exchange of
data between two devices via some form of transmission
medium such as a wire cable.

1.1
 THE INTERNET

The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our daily

lives. It has affected the way we do business as well as the
way we spend our leisure time. The Internet is a
communication system that has brought a wealth of
information to our fingertips and organized it for our use.

1.2
 Hierarchical organization of the Internet

1.3
 PROTOCOLS

A protocol is synonymous with rule. It consists of a set of

rules that govern data communications. It determines what
is communicated, how it is communicated and when it is
communicated. The key elements of a protocol are syntax,
semantics and timing

1.4
 Elements of a Protocol

• Syntax
• Structure or format of the data
• Indicates how to read the bits - field delineation
• Semantics
• Interprets the meaning of the bits
• Knows which fields define what action
• Timing
• When data should be sent and what
• Speed at which data should be sent or speed at which it is being
received.

1.5
Data Communication Frameworks
• Two major data communication frameworks have been developed to
help ensure that networks meet business and communication
requirements:
• Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model developed by the
International Standards Organization (ISO)
• Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite
History of the OSI Model
• Open Systems Interconnected Model
• was created in the 70’s by the ISO (although the CCITT came up with their
own model)
• 10 different people got together and considered all functions of communications
• was created because people realized that our computers needed to talk to
each other(and there was no one dominant computer system)
• ISDN was a big factor
• 7 layers = 4 upper and 3 lower
OSI Reference Model in Practice
• The OSI reference model is used in many ways:
• To provide assistance when troubleshooting network problems
• To provide a common terminology and framework for networking technology
developers
• To facilitate the development of connectivity standards needed for flexible
open architectures
• To enable the development of protocol stacks that allow network nodes to
communicate with one another
 THE OSI MODEL

Established in 1947, the International Standards

Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.

2.9
 Note

ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model.

2.10
 Seven layers of the OSI model

2.11
 Physical layer

2.12
 Note

The physical layer is responsible for movements of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.

2.13
 Data link layer

2.14
 Note

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.

2.15
 Network layer

2.16
 Note

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.

2.17
 Transport layer

2.18
 Note

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.

2.19
 Session layer

2.20
 Note

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.

2.21
 Presentation layer

2.22
 Note

The presentation layer is responsible for translation,

compression, and encryption.

2.23
 Application layer

2.24
 Note

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.

2.25
 Summary of layers

2.26
The OSI Model
• LAYER 7– APPLICATION
THE OSI MODEL The visual interface level between the user and the
network, or computer. (Ex Word, Excel, Access, Email)
• LAYER 6-- PRESENTATION
LAYER 7 Application This layer is responsible for converting the visual interface
LAYER 6 Presentation into a code that is then sent through the computer or
network. For example, this layer may convert ASCII code
LAYER 5 Session (what many applications like Word use) to an 8-bit code.

LAYER 4 Transport • LAYER 5 – SESSION

This layer keeps track of whose turn it is to receive traffic,
basically it is a dialog control. This is the level that
acknowledges receipt of a transmission as well as sends the
LAYER 3 Network message to the network.
LAYER 2 Data Link • LAYER 4 – TRANSPORT
LAYER 1 Physical All streams of data are received and combined into one
single stream so that data may be sent through the
network. Multiplexing and demultiplexing occurs on this
layer.
The OSI Model
• BOTTOM/LOWER LAYERS
THE OSI MODEL • LAYER 3– NETWORK
On this level the router exists to determine if the message is
meant for the system or if it needs to be redirected to its
LAYER 7 Application final destination. This is done by a header system, which is
programmed to accept or reject depending if the header is
LAYER 6 Presentation the one used by the network.
LAYER 5 Session • LAYER 2– DATA LINK
LAYER 4 Transport There is where a check of the message occurs. That is the
message is checked for the proper frame, formation,
synchronization, power level, voltage, and wavelength. If
the test is a successful, the message is sent to the network
LAYER 3 Network layer to determine if the message is truly meant for the
LAYER 2 Data Link system.

LAYER 1 Physical • LAYER 1– PHYSICAL

Where the actual physical makeup of the message is
identified. That is the duration of bits, the right number of
bits, and the right wavelength is checked. As with the other
two layers, if this test is successful, the message is sent up
the chain.
 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly

match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP protocol
suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-network,
internet, transport, and application. However, when
TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the TCP/IP
protocol suite is made of five layers: physical, data link,
network, transport, and application.

2.29
 Figure 2.16 TCP/IP and OSI model

2.30
 ADDRESSING

Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing

the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific.

Addresses in TCP/IP

2.31
 Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

2.32
Important Standard-Setting Organizations
Key Data Communication Concepts
• Session: communication dialog between network users or applications
• Network: interconnected group of computers and communication devices
• Node: a network-attached computer
• Link: connects adjacent nodes (see Figure 1-4)
• Path: end-to-end route within a network
• Circuit: the conduit over which data travels
• Packetizing: dividing messages into fixed-length packets prior to transmission over a network’s
communication media
• Routing: determining a message’s path from sending to receiving nodes.
Telecom Channels
• Channels - the links by which data or voice are transmitted between
sending and receiving devices in a network
• twisted wires
• coaxial cable
• fiber-optic cable
• backbone
• wireless
• microwave
• Satellite
• Cellular
• Mobile data networks (2-way)
• PCS (personal communication systems)- to the end user acts like cellular, but different
• Personal data assistants
• smart phones
Transmission Speeds

Medium Speed Cost

Twisted W ire 300 bps-10 Mbps Low
Microwave 256 Kbps-100 Mbps
Satellite 256 Kbps-100 Mbps
Coaxial Cable 56 Kbps-200 Mbps
Fiber-Optic Cable 500 Kbps-10 Gbps High
 NETWORKS

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)

connected by communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending
and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network. A link can be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any
medium which can transport a signal carrying
information.

1.38
Network Topology, Architecture, and
Complexity
• Network topology refers to the physical layout of a network, the way
that nodes attach to the communication medium
• Network architecture refers to the way in which media, hardware, and
software are integrated to form a network
• Network complexity is concerned with extent to which network
architectures are simple or diverse in their make
 Physical Structures

• Type of Connection
• Point to Point - single transmitter and receiver
• Multipoint - multiple recipients of single transmission

1.40
How many kinds of Networks?
• Depending on one’s perspective, we can classify
networks in different ways
• Based on transmission media: Wired (UTP, coaxial
cables, fiber-optic cables) and Wireless
• Based on network size: LAN and WAN (and MAN)
• Based on management method: Peer-to-peer and
Client/Server
• Based on topology (connectivity): Bus, Star, Ring …

41
Transmission Media
• Two main categories:
• Guided ― wires, cables
• Unguided ― wireless transmission, e.g. radio,
microwave, infrared, sound, sonar
• We will concentrate on guided media here:
• Twisted-Pair cables:
Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) cables
Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) cables
• Coaxial cables
• Fiber-optic cables
42
Twisted-Pair Cables
• If the pair of wires are not twisted, electromagnetic
noises from, e.g., motors, will affect the closer wire more
than the further one, thereby causing errors

43
Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP)
• Typically wrapped inside a plastic cover (for mechanical
protection)
• A sample UTP cable with 5 unshielded twisted pairs of wires

Insulator Metal
44
Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP)
• STP cables are similar to UTP cables, except there is a metal
foil or braided-metal-mesh cover that encases each pair of
insulated wires

45
Categories of UTP Cables
EIA classifies UTP cables according to the quality:
• Category 1 ― the lowest quality, only good for voice, mainly
found in very old buildings, not recommended now
• Category 2 ― good for voice and low data rates (up to 4Mbps
for low-speed token ring networks)
• Category 3 ― at least 3 twists per foot, for up to 10 Mbps
(common in phone networks in residential buildings)
• Category 4 ― up to 16 Mbps (mainly for token rings)
• Category 5 (or 5e) ― up to 100 Mbps (common for networks
targeted for high-speed data communications)
• Category 6 ― more twists than Cat 5, up to 1 Gbps

46
Coaxial Cables
• In general, coaxial cables, or coax, carry signals of higher freq
(100KHz–500MHz) than UTP cables
• Outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise
and as the second conductor that completes the circuit

47
Fiber-Optic Cables
• Light travels at 3108 ms-1 in free space and is the fastest
possible speed in the Universe
• Light slows down in denser media, e.g. glass
• Refraction occurs at interface, with light bending away from the
normal when it enters a less dense medium

• Beyond the critical angle  total internal reflection

48
• An optical fiber consists of a core (denser material) and a
cladding (less dense material)
• Simplest one is a multimode step-index optical fiber
• Multimode = multiple paths, whereas step-index = refractive
index follows a step-function profile (i.e. an abrupt change of
refractive index between the core and the cladding)
• Light bounces back and forth along the core
• Common light sources: LEDs and lasers

49
Network Operating Software

• Network operating systems co-

ordinate the activities of multiple
computers across a network
• The two major types of network
OS are:
• Peer-to-peer
• Client/server
Peer to peer network OS

• In peer to peer network OS, there is no file

server or central management source; all
computers are considered equal
• Peer to peer networks are design primarily for
small to medium LANS
• AppleShare and Windows for Workgroups are
examples of programs that can function as
peer to peer
• Advantages of peer-to-peer networks:
• Low cost
• Simple to configure
• User has full accessibility of the computer

• Disadvantages of peer-to-peer networks:

• May have duplication in resources
• Difficult to uphold security policy
• Difficult to handle uneven loading
• Where peer-to-peer network is appropriate:
• 10 or less users
• No specialized services required
• Security is not an issue
• Only limited growth in the foreseeable future 52
Client/Server network OS

• Client/server network OS centralise

functions and applications in one or
more dedicated file servers.
• The file server provides access to
resources and provides security
• Novel Netware and Windows NT
Server are examples of client/server
network operating systems
Clients and Servers
• Network Clients (Workstation)
• Computers that request network resources or services
• Network Servers
• Computers that manage and provide network resources
and services to clients
• Usually have more processing power, memory and
hard disk space than clients
• Run Network Operating System that can manage not
only data, but also users, groups, security, and
applications on the network
• Servers often have a more stringent requirement on its
performance and reliability 54
• Advantages of client/server networks
• Facilitate resource sharing – centrally administrate and
control
• Facilitate system backup and improve fault tolerance
• Enhance security – only administrator can have access
to Server
• Support more users – difficult to achieve with peer-to-
peer networks

• Disadvantages of client/server networks

• High cost for Servers
• Need expert to configure the network
• Introduce a single point of failure to the system
55
Topology

• The physical topology of a network refers to the

configuration of cables, computers and other peripherals.
• The main types of network topologies are:
• Linear Bus
• Star
• Ring
• Tree or Hybrid
• Mesh
 Linear Bus topology

• A linear bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a

terminator at each end. All servers workstations and
peripherals are connected to the linear cable
Star topology

• A star network is
designed with each node
(file server, workstation,
peripheral) connected
directly to a central
network hub or server
 Ring topology

• A ring network is one where all

workstations and other devices are
connected in a continuous loop.
There is no central server
Tree or hybrid topology

• A tree or hybrid topology

combines characteristics
of linear bus and star
and/or ring topologies.
• It consists of groups of
star-configured
workstations connected to
a linear bus backbone
cable
Introduction to Computer Networks

Mesh Topology
• The mesh topology
connects all devices
(nodes) to each other for
redundancy and fault
tolerance.
• It is used in WANs to
interconnect LANs and for
mission critical networks
like those used by banks
and financial institutions.
• Implementing the mesh
topology is expensive and
difficult.
What is a Hub?
• A hub is usually a small rectangular box, often made of plastic, which
receives its power from an ordinary wall outlet
• A hub joins multiple computers (or other network devices) together
to form a single network segment
• On this network segment, all computers can communicate directly
with each other
What is a Hub?
• Ethernet hubs are by far the most common type, but hubs for other
types of networks such as USB also exist
• A hub includes a series of ports that each accepts a network cable
• Small hubs can network four computers together
• They contain four or sometimes five ports
What is a Hub?
• Many times the fifth port is reserved for "uplink" which is the
connecting of one hub to another hub or similar device (joining two
segments together).
• Larger hubs contain eight, 12, 16, and even 24 ports
Key Features of Hubs

• Hubs classify as Layer 1 devices in the OSI model

• OSI stands for :
The Open Systems Interconnection Basic Reference Model
• At the physical layer, hubs can support little in the way of
sophisticated networking
• Hubs do not read any of the data passing through them and are not
aware of their source or destination
Key Features of Hubs

• Essentially, a hub simply receives incoming packets, possibly amplifies

the electrical signal, and broadcasts these packets out to all devices
on the network - including the one that originally sent the packet!
• a packet is a formatted block of data carried by a computer network
Different Types of Hubs
Technically speaking, three different types of hubs exist

• Passive
• Active
• Intelligent
 Passive hubs
• Passive hubs do not amplify the electrical signal of incoming
packets before broadcasting them out to the network
Active hubs
• Active hubs amplify the electrical signal of incoming
packets back to their original level before broadcasting them
back out on the network
Intelligent hubs
• add extra features to an active hub that are of particular
importance to businesses
• An intelligent hub is typically stackable (built in such a way
that multiple units can be placed one on top of the other to
conserve space).
Intelligent hubs
• It also typically includes remote management capabilities via SNMP
and virtual LAN (VLAN) support (You can configure or check it from a
computer that is connected to it).
• SNMP-Simple Network Management Protocol
What is a Network Switch?
• A network switch is a small hardware device that joins multiple
computers together within one local area network (LAN)
• Technically, network switches operate at layer two (Data Link Layer) of
the OSI model
Network Switch
• Network switches appear nearly identical to network hubs, but a
switch generally contains more "intelligence" (and a slightly higher
price tag) than a hub
• Unlike hubs, network switches are capable of inspecting data packets
as they are received, determining the source and destination device
of that packet, and forwarding it appropriately
Network Switch
• By delivering each message only to the connected device it was
intended for, a network switch conserves network bandwidth and
offers generally better performance than a hub
What is a Router?
• Routers are physical devices that join multiple wired or wireless
networks together
• Technically, a wired or wireless router is a Layer 3 gateway, meaning
that the wired/wireless router connects networks together
• A Gateway is a device that acts like a security guard and only allows
data in or out if it has the right network headers
Routers
• Home “networkers” often use an Internet Protocol (IP) wired or
wireless router
• IP is the most common OSI network layer protocol
• Protocols are the rules governing the transfer of data information, it
can also be compared to how humans use languages (to get your
point across you must talk in the same language as the person you
are speaking to).
Routers
• An IP router such as a DSL or cable modem are broadband routers
and joins the home's local area network (LAN) to the wide-area
network (WAN) of the Internet
• A Broadband Router is a device that allows multiple PC’s to access the
Internet using only one address.