Programmable

Logic
Controllers

PLCs
 Introduction
 The programmable logic controllers (PLCs)
is a digital computer used for automation of
typically industrial electromechanical
processes.
 They are now used in most of the industrial
and house hold electromechanical
equipments where it is necessary to control
different types of processes in a sequential
manner with specific time functions.
 Introduction
 Examples of industrial applications are process
controls in production cycle.
 Examples in house hold appliances are in
washing machines, dish washers etc.
 Before PLC’s invention these processes were
controlled by hard wired systems using
electro-magnetic relays, timers etc.
 These systems used to be bulky and more
complicated because of hard wiring.
 It was not easy to detect faults in the system
and it was very difficult to alter any
programme sequence.
 Introduction
 These systems were expensive compared to PLC
systems.
 The first programmable logic controller was
developed by a group of engineers at General
Motors in 1968.
 The new system had to meet the following
requirements viz:,
◦ Simple programming and maintenance.
◦ Programme changes without system intervention.
◦ Smaller, cheaper and more reliable than
corresponding rely control systems.
 Introduction
 The subsequent development evolved in a system
with binary signal interface.
 In 1977, Allen Bradley Corporation introduced a
microprocessor-based PLC.
 Ever since the advent of static devices, use of PLCs
in automated system grew up by leaps and bounds.
 Many other corporates like Mitsubishi, Toshiba,
Siemens, Brown Boveri are now in the field of
manufacturing their brands of PLCs.
 Since the first PLC a lot of changes have taken place
in PLC architecture and complexity.
 Miniaturized PLCs have become a part of every day
life whether it is in lift or washing machine.
 Advantages of PLC systems
 Any control system goes through four stages from
conception to a working plant and a PLC system
brings advantages at each stage.
 Design: The required plant is studied and the control
strategies decided.
 With conventional systems design must be complete
before construction can start.
 With a PLC system all that is needed is a possibly
vague idea of the size of the machine and the I/O
requirements (how many inputs and outputs).
 The input and output cards are cheap at this stage, so a
healthy spare capacity can be built in to allow for the
inevitable omissions and future developments.
 Advantages of PLC systems
 Construction: With conventional schemes, every job
is a ‘one-off’ with inevitable delays and costs.
 A PLC system is simply bolted together from standard
parts.
 During this time the writing of the PLC program is
started (or at least the detailed program specification is
written).
 Installation: A tedious and expensive business as
sensors, actuators, limit switches and operator controls
are cabled.
 A distributed PLC system using serial links and pre-
built and tested desks can simplify installation and
bring huge cost benefits.
 The majority of the PLC program is written at this
stage.
 Advantages of PLC systems
 Finally comes commissioning, and this is where
the real advantages are found.
 No plant ever works first time.
 Human nature being what it is, there will be some
oversights.
 Changes to conventional systems are time
consuming and expensive.
 Provided the designer of the PLC system has built
in spare memory capacity, spare I/O and a few
spare cores in multi-core cables, most changes can
be made quickly and relatively cheaply.
 Advantages of PLC systems
 An added bonus is that all changes are recorded in
the PLC’s program and commissioning
modifications do not go unrecorded, as is often the
case in conventional systems.
 There is an additional fifth stage, maintenance,
which starts once the plant is working.
 All plants have faults, and most tend to spend the
majority of their time in some form of failure
mode.
 A PLC system provides a very powerful tool for
assisting with fault diagnosis.
 Advantages of PLC systems
 A plant is also subject to many changes during its
life to speed production, to ease breakdowns or
because of changes in its requirements.
 A PLC system can be changed so easily that
modifications are simple and the PLC program
will automatically document the changes that have
been made.
 Structure

 Any PLC contains the following components viz;,

◦ INPUT/ OUTPUT module
◦ CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
◦ PROGRAMMER/MONITOR (PM) module
 The design of a PLC is similar to that of a
computer.
 POWER SUPPLY

CPU
` INPUT OUTPUT
MODULE MODULE

MEMORY
 Structure

PM
Programmer/monitor

CPU

Output
Input Microprocessor
Module
Module Memory

Power
supply
Rack and Chassis
 Structure
 The input module has terminals into which
outside process electrical signals, generated by
sensor or transducers, are entered.
 The output module has terminals to which output
signals are sent to activate relays, solenoids,
various solid-state switching devices, motors, and
display.
 An electronic system for connecting I/O modules
to remote locations can be added if needed.
 The actual operating process under PLC control
can be thousands of feet from the CPU and its I/O
modules.
 Structure
 Internally a computer usually operates at 5V DC.
 The external devices (solenoids, motor starters,
limit switches, etc.) operate at voltages up to 110 V
AC.
 The mixing of these two voltages will cause severe
and possibly irreparable damage to the PLC
electronics.
 Less obvious problems can occur from electrical
‘noise’ introduced into the PLC from voltage
spikes on signal lines, or from load currents
flowing in AC neutral or DC return lines.
 Structure
 Differences in earth potential between the PLC
cubicle and outside plant can also cause problems.
 This ensures that the PLC cannot be adversely
affected by anything happening on the plant.
 Even a cable fault putting high AC voltage onto a
DC input would only damage the input card; the
PLC itself (and the other cards in the system)
would not suffer.
 This is achieved by optical isolators, a light-
emitting diode and photoelectric transistor linked
together as in Figure.
Single Channel Input Card
 Structure
 When current is passed through the diode D1 it emits light,
causing the transistor TR1 to switch on.
 Because there are no electrical connections between the
diode and the transistor, very good electrical isolation
(typically 1–4kV) is achieved.
 A DC input can be provided as in Figure.
 When the pushbutton is pressed, current will flow through
D1, causing TR1 to turn on, passing the signal to the PLC
internal logic.
 Diode D2 is a light-emitting diode used as a fault-finding
aid to show when the input signal is present.
 Such indicators are present on almost all PLC input and
output cards.
 The resistor R sets the voltage range of the input. DC input
cards are usually available for three voltage ranges: 5V
(TTL), 12–24V, 24–50V.
 Structure
 A possible AC input circuit is shown in Figure.
 The bridge rectifier is used to convert the AC to
full wave rectified DC.
 Resistor R2 and capacitor C1 act as a filter (of
about 50ms time constant) to give a clean signal to
the PLC logic.
 As before, a neon LP1 acts as an input signal
indicator for fault finding, and resistor R1 sets the
voltage range.
Single Channel Input Card
 Structure
 The output module has terminals to which output
signals are sent to activate relays, solenoids,
various solid-state switching devices, motors, and
display.
 Output cards again require some form of isolation
barrier to limit damage from the inevitable plant
faults and also to stop electrical ‘noise’ corrupting
the processor’s operations.
 Interference can be more of a problem on outputs
because higher currents are being controlled by the
cards and the loads themselves are often inductive
(e.g. solenoid and relay coils).
 Structure
 There are two basic types of output card.
◦ Common supply output card
◦ Individual supply output card
 The common supply output card arrangement is
the simplest and the cheapest to install.
 Each output has its own individual fuse protection
on the card and a common circuit breaker.
 It is important to design the system so that a fault,
say, on load 3 blows the fuse FS3 but does not trip
the supply to the whole card, shutting down every
output.
Structure
 Structure
 A PLC frequently has to drive outputs which have
their own individual supplies.
 A typical example is a motor control centre (MCC)
where each starter has a separate internal supply.
 The common output card arrangement cannot be
used here without separate interposing relays
(driven by the PLC with contacts into the MCC
circuit).
 An isolated output card, shown in Figure, has
individual outputs and protection and acts purely
as a switch.
Structure
 Structure
 This can be connected directly with any outside
circuit.
 The disadvantage is that the card is more
complicated (two connections per output) and
safety becomes more involved.
 An eight-way isolated output card, for example,
could have voltage on its terminals from eight
different locations.
 Optical isolation is again used to give the
necessary separation between the plant and the
PLC system.
 The output state can be observed on LED.
 Structure

 Diode D1 acts as a spike suppression diode to

reduce the voltage spike encountered with
inductive loads.
 Structure

 DC output cards use transistors and AC output

cards use triacs.
 Structure
 Triacs have the advantage that they turn off at zero
current in the load, as shown in Figure, which
eliminates the interference as an inductive load is
turned off.
 If possible, all AC loads should be driven from
triacs rather than relays.
 An output card will have a limit to the current it
can supply, usually set by the printed circuit board
tracks rather than the output devices.
 An individual output current will be set for each
output (typically 2 A) and a total overall output
(typically 6 A).
 Structure

 Usually the total allowed for the card current is

lower than the sum of the allowed individual
outputs.
 Structure
 It is therefore good practice to reduce the total card
current by assigning outputs which cannot occur
together (e.g. forward/reverse, fast/slow) to the
same card.
 An electronic system for connecting I/O modules
to remote locations can be added if needed.
 The actual operating process under PLC control
can be located at any distance from the CPU and
its I/O modules.
 Input/output identification
 The PLC program must have some way of
identifying inputs and outputs & most PLC
manufacturers use a similar scheme.
 In general, a signal is identified by its physical
location in some form of mounting frame or rack,
by the card position in this rack, and by which
connection on the card the signal is wired to.
 For example if a lamp is connected to Output 5 of
Card 5 on Rack 2, then the notation given is
O:25/05.
 Input/output identification
 Same way if it is input the ‘O’ is replaced with ‘I’.
 For example if a switch is connected to Input 3 of
Card 4 in Rack 2 the notation will be I:24/03.
 In early PLCs I/O modules were installed in the
same rack.
 So all the signals are to be brought to and send
back from these units to remote locations where
hard-wares were located making the installations
expensive and trouble shooting more difficult.
 Present PLC manufacturers therefore provide the
ability to mount I/O racks remote from the
processor.
 Input/Output Identification
 These racks can be linked to the processor with
simple (and cheap) screened single pair or fibre
optic cable.
 Racks can then be mounted up to several
kilometres away from the processor.
 There are many benefits from this.
 It obviously reduces cable costs as racks can be
laid out local to the plant devices and only short
multi-core cable runs are needed.
 Less obviously, remote I/O allows complete units
to be built, wired to a built-in rack, and tested
offsite prior to delivery and installation.
 Structure
 The “brain” of the CPU has three subparts:
◦ Microprocessor-The computer center that carries out
mathematical and logical operations.
◦ Memory-The area of the CPU in which data and
information is stored and retrieved.
◦ Holds the system software and user program.
◦ Power supply-The electrical supply that converts
alternating current (AC)line voltage to various
operational DC values.
◦ In the process, the power supply filters and regulates the
DC voltages to ensure proper computer operation.
 Structure
 The programmer/monitor (PM) is a device used
to communicate with the circuits of the PLC.
 Hand-held terminals, industrial terminals, and the
personal computer exist as PM devices.
 In a hand-held unit, input takes place through a
membrane keypad and the display is usually a
liquid-crystal display(LCD).
 With the industrial terminal or personal computer
more complex, typewriter-type keyboards and
cathode ray tubes (CRTs)are employed.
 Internal Relays
 In PLCs there are elements that are used to hold data,
i.e.bits and behave like relays, being able to be switched on
or off and switch other devices on or off.
 These are called internal relays.
 Such internal relays do not exist as real world switching
devices but are bits in the storage memory and behave in
the same way as relays.
 For programming, they can be treated in the same way as
an external relay output and input.
 In one rung program when an external input is activated the
internal relay is activated.
 To distinguish internal relay outputs from external relay
outputs, they are given different types of addresses.
 Internal Relays
 Some internal relays have battery back-up so that they can
be used in circuits to ensure a safe shutdown of plant in the
event of a power failure and so enable it to restart in an
appropriate manner.
 Timers:
 In many control tasks, there is a need to control time e.g.
 A motor might need to be controlled to operate for a
particular interval of time or a motor to be switched on
after some time interval.
 PLCs have timers as built-in devices.
 Timers count fractions of seconds or seconds using the
internal CPU clock.
 Internal Relays
 For programming, a common approach is to consider
timers to behave like relays with coils which when
energised result in the closure or opening of the contacts
after a preset time.
 Counters
 A counter allows a number of occurrences of input signals
to be counted.
 This might be in a situation where items pass along a
conveyor.
 It might be counting the number of revolutions of a shaft.
 It might be number of people passing through a door.
 Counters for such applications are provided as in-built
elements in PLCs.
 Internal Relays
 A counter is set to some preset value and when this value of
input pulses has been received, it will operate its contacts.
 Two types of counters, Down counters and Up counters
count from preset value to zero and from zero to preset
value respectively.
 When there is a pulse input to ‘0000’ the counter is reset.
 When there is an input to ‘00001’, the counter starts
counting.
 If the counter is set for, say, 10 pulses, then when 10 pulses
are received at ‘00001’ the counters contact will be closed
and there will be an output 1.
 Commissioning of a PLC System
 Commissioning of a PLC system involves:
◦ Checking all cable connections between PLC and field
devices.
◦ Checking if the incoming power supply matches the
voltage setting of PLC
◦ Checking that all protective devices are set properly.
◦ Checking emergency stop for correct operation
◦ Checking if all input/output devices are connected to the
correct input/output points and giving the correct
signals.
◦ Loading and testing the software.
 Testing of PLC System
 Input devices ,e.g. Limit switches can be manipulated to
give the open and closed contact conditions and the
corresponding LED on the input module is observed.
 It should be illuminated when the input is closed and
extinguished when open.
 For Output devices that can be safely started, PBs might
have been installed so that each output can be checked.
 Alternative method to test inputs and outputs is by
FORCING.
 This method is used when PLCs are put in MONITOR or
TEST mode.
 Testing of PLC System
 Forcing involves software and used with keying in
instructions from the program console to turn on/off
inputs/outputs instead of mechanically manipulating them.
 Testing Software: Most PLCs contain some software
checking program. This checks through the installed
program for incorrect device addresses and provides a list
on a display screen or as a print out of:
◦ All the input/output points used.
◦ Counter and timer settings with any errors detected.
 e.g. a message saying:
◦ A particular output address that it is used as an output more than
once in the program.
◦ A timer or counter is being used without a preset value
◦ A counter is being used without a reset etc.
 Testing of PLC System
 Simulation:
 Many PLCs are fitted with a simulation unit which reads
and writes information directly into the input/output
memory and so simulates actions of inputs.
 The installed program can then be run and inputs and
outputs simulated so that they, and all preset values, can be
checked.
 To carry out this type of operation, the terminal has to be
on MONITOR or TEST.
 Trouble shooting
 Generally, greater percentage of faults in PLC controlled
systems are likely to be with sensors, actuators and wiring
than within the PLC itself.
 Of the faults within the PLC, most faults are likely to be in
the input/output channels and the power supply than in the
CPU.
 Many PLCs provide built-in fault analysis procedures
which carry out self-testing and display fault codes.
◦ Timing checks – carried out by the PLC that some function has
been carried out within the normal time.
◦ Last output check – involves the use of status lamps to indicate the
last output that has been set during a process which has come to a
halt.
◦ Replication- The system repeats every operation twice and if it gets
the same result, it is assumed that there is no fault.
 Program Scan
 A PLC program can be considered to behave as a
permanent running loop and the period of the loop is called
the program scan time.
 The user’s instructions are obeyed sequentially, and when
the last instruction has been obeyed the operation starts
again at the first instruction.
 A PLC does not, therefore, communicate continuously with
the outside world, but acts, rather, by taking ‘snapshots’.
 This depends on the size of the PLC program and the speed
of the processor, but is typically 2–5ms per K of program.
 Average scan times are usually around 10–50 ms.
PROGRAM Structure REAL WORLD

MEMORY INPUT/OUTPUT

ADDRESS

DATA

CONTROL

CENTRAL PROCESSOR UNIT

 Program Scan
 The PLC does not read inputs as needed as this
would be wasteful of time.
 At the start of the scan it reads the state of all the
connected inputs and stores their state in the PLC
memory.
 When the PLC program accesses an input, it reads
the input state as it was at the start of the current
program scan.
 As the PLC program is obeyed through the scan, it
again does not change outputs instantly.
 Program Scan
 An area of the PLCs memory corresponding to the
outputs is changed by the program, then all the
outputs are updated simultaneously at the end of
the scan.
 The action is thus: read inputs, scan program,
update outputs.
 The PLC memory can be considered to consist of
four areas.
 The inputs are read into an input mimic area at the
start of the scan, and the outputs updated from the
output mimic area at the end of the scan.
 Program Scan
 There will be an area of memory reserved for
internal signals which are used by the program but
are not connected directly to the outside world
(timers, counters, storage bits, e.g. fault signals,
and so on).
 These three areas are often referred to as the data
table (Allen Bradley) or the database
(ASEA/ABB).
 A medium-size PLC system will have around 1000
inputs and outputs.
 The program scan obviously limits the speed of
signals to which a PLC can respond.
 Program Scan
 A PLC is being used to count a series of fast
pulses, with the pulse rate slower than the scan rate
then the PLC counts correctly.
 If the pulse rate is faster than the scan rate and the
PLC starts to miscount and miss pulses.
 In the extreme case whole blocks of pulses are
totally ignored.
 In general, any input signal that a PLC reads must
be present for longer than the scan time; shorter
pulses may be read if they happen to be present at
the right time but this cannot be guaranteed.
 Program Scan
 If pulse trains are being observed, the pulse
frequency must be slower than 1/(2×scan period).
 A PLC with a scan period of 40ms can, in theory,
just about follow a pulse train of 1/(2×0.04)=12.5
Hz.
 In practice other factors such as filters on the input
cards have a significant effect and it is always
advisable to be conservative in speed estimates.
 Program Scan

(a) Pulse rate slower than the scan rate.

(b) Pulse rate faster than the scan rate and some pulses are missed.
(c) Pulse rate much faster than the scan rate very high percentage
of missed pulses.
 Program Scan

 Less obviously, the PLC scan can cause a random ‘skew’

between inputs and outputs.
 In Figure an input is to cause an ‘immediate’ output.
 In the best case of Figure (A), the input occurs just at the
start of the scan.
 Program Scan
 This results in the energization of the output one scan period
later.
 In Figure 2.4(B) the input has arrived just after the inputs
are read, and one whole scan is lost before the PLC ‘sees’
the input, and the rest of the second scan passes before the
output is energized.
 The response can thus vary between one and two scan
periods.
 In the majority of applications this skew of a few tens of
milliseconds is not important.
 Where fast actions are needed, however, it can be crucial.
 PLC makers provide special cards (small processors ) for
dealing with this type of high-speed application.
 Program Scan
 The layout of the PLC program itself can result in
undesirable delays if the program logic flows against the
PLC program scan.
 The PLC starts at the first instruction for each scan, and
works its way through the instructions in a sequential
manner to the end of the program.
 It then does its output update, goes to read its inputs and
runs through the program again.
 In Figure (B), an input causes an output, but it goes through
five steps first (it could be stepping a counter or seeing if
some other required conditions are present).
 The program logic, however, is flowing against the scan. On
the first scan the input causes event A.
 Program Scan

 On the next scan event A causes event B and so on until

after five scans event D causes the output to energize.
 If the program had been arranged as in Figure (B) the
whole sequence would have occurred in one single scan.
 Logic Gates
 Before going into PLC programing it will be helpful to
brush up the logic gate basics.
 A logic gate is an arrangement of controlled switches used
to calculate operations using Boolean logic in digital
circuits.
 They are primarily implemented electronically (using
diodes, transistors) but can also be constructed using
electromagnetic relays, fluidics, optical or even
mechanical elements.
 Relay logic was historically important in industrial
automation
 Logic Gates
 Since relay contacts conduct in both directions, complex
logic designs must be checked for "sneak paths" that
produce unintended logic paths.
 Semiconductor logic gates are not conductive in both
directions, as the input signal acts as a 'trigger' to allow
current out of the output, rather than allowing current
straight through from input to output.
 In electronics a logic gate is a physical electronic device
which performs a logical operation on one or more logical
inputs, and produces a single logical output.
 Pure electronic logic gates Logic gates are primarily
implemented using diodes or transistors acting as
electronic switches.
 Logic Gates
 Logic circuits include such devices as multiplexers,
registers, arithmetic logic units (ALUs), and computer
memory, or the modern microprocessors, which may
contain more than 100 million gates.
 In modern practice, most gates are made from field-effect
transistors (FETs), particularly MOSFETs (metal–oxide–
semiconductor field-effect transistors).
 To build a functionally complete logic system, relays,
valves (vacuum tubes), or transistors can be used.
 The simplest family of logic gates using bipolar transistors
is called resistor-transistor logic (RTL).
 RTL gates were used in early integrated circuits.
 Logic Gates
 For higher speed and better density, the resistors used in
RTL were replaced by diodes resulting in diode-transistor
logic (DTL).
 Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) then supplanted DTL.
 As integrated circuits became more complex, bipolar
transistors were replaced with smaller field-effect
transistors.
 Electronic logic gates differ significantly from their relay-
and-switch equivalents.
 They are much faster, consume much less power, and are
much smaller (all by a factor of a million or more in most
cases).
 Logic Gates
 The three types of essential logic gate are the AND, the
OR and the NOT gate.
 With these three, any conceivable Boolean equation can be
implemented.
 However, for convenience, the derived types NAND,
NOR, XOR and XNOR are also used, which often use
fewer circuit elements for a given equation than an
implementation based solely on AND, OR and NOT would
do.
 Logic Gates
 AND gates:
 The Boolean AND function can be implemented with two
switches, A and B, as shown below, right.
 If a power lead is connected to switch A, and a wire
connects switches A and B, then both A and B have to be
"on" in order for the output of the circuit to conduct
electricity and provide power.
 Logic Gates
 OR gates:
 An OR gate can be constructed from two switches,
arranged so that if either switch is "on", the output will
also be "on".
 Note that the output will still be on even if both switches
are on.
 Logic Gates
 Inverter or NOT gates:
 This is a special switch that when pushed breaks the
current when it is pressed.
 The normally-closed contact of a relay can be used for this
purpose.
 Logic Gates
 NAND Gate: NAND gate is a combination of AND and
NOT gate.
 NAND gate is known as universal gate as using NAND
gate output of any other gate can be made.
 Logic Gates
 NOR Gate: NOR gate is a combination of OR gate and
NOT (Inverter) gate.
 NOR gate is also known as universal gate as using this
gate output of any other gate can be made.
 Logic Gates
 EX-OR or XOR Gate: XOR is a 'stricter' version of the
OR gate.
 Rather than allowing the output to be HIGH when either
one or both of the inputs are HIGH, an XOR gate has a
HIGH output only when only one input is HIGH.
 Logic Gates
 EX-NOR or XNOR Gate: This is an inverted version of
the XOR gate.
 This can also be interpreted as "HIGH output when the
inputs are same".
Logic Gates
 Logic Gates
 As integrated circuits became more complex, bipolar
transistors were replaced with smaller field-effect
transistors.
 Electronic logic gates differ significantly from their relay-
and-switch equivalents.
 They are much faster, consume much less power, and are
much smaller (all by a factor of a million or more in most
cases).
 PLC Programming
 Programming means feeding a set of instructions to the
PLC and directing its control operations to be as
instructed.
 Programs for PLC have to be written in a language and
converted into a machine code, this being a sequence of
binary code numbers to represent the program instructions.
 A software is used to translate the program into machine
code for use by the processor.
 Programming can be made much easier by use of high
level languages like C, BASIC, PASCAL, FORTRAN,
COBOL but writing programs with these languages
requires skill in programming.
 PLC Programming
 Evolution of Ladder Diagram
 Writing programs with high level languages need special
skills in programming.
 PLCs are also intended to be used by engineers without
any great knowledge in programming
 As a consequence, a simpler Ladder programming was
developed.
 This is a simpler means of writing programs which can
then be converted into machine code by some software for
use by the PLC microprocessor.
 PLC Programming
 The Ladder Diagram
 A schematic diagram is converted into a Ladder Diagram
which serves as means of feeding a set of instructions or
a programme into the memory of the PLC.
 The Ladder Diagram is a symbolic and schematic way of
representing both the system hardware and the process
controller.
 It is called a ladder diagram because the various circuit
devices connected in parallel across the a.c. line form
something that looks like a ladder, with each parallel
connection a “rung” on the ladder.
 Each rung of the ladder is composed of a number of
conditions or input states and a single command output.
 PLC Programming
 The nature of the input states determine whether the output
is to be energized or not energized.
 Special symbols are used to represent the various circuit
elements in a ladder diagrams.
 PLC Programming
 Conventions to be followed while drawing the ladder diagram:
1. Vertical lines of the diagram represent the Power.
2. Each rung of the ladder defines one operation in the control
process.
3. Each rung must start with input or inputs and must end with an
output.
4. Electrical devices are shown in their normal condition. A switch
which is shown normally open until some object closes it is shown
as open.
5. A particular device can appear in more than one rung.
6. The inputs and outputs are all identified by their addresses, the
notation used depending on the manufacturer.
7. END indicates the end of the program.
8. A ladder diagram is read from left to right and top to bottom.
 PLC Programming
 If you forget to include the END, the program will not
execute and the error message
 “NO END INST” will be displayed.
 When the PLC is in ts RUN mode, it goes through the
entire ladder program to the end and promptly resumes
from the start, the process termed as a Scan Cycle.
 Supervisory Control And Data
Acquisition (SCADA)
 The Evolution of SCADA:
 In the 1950s, the first mini-computers were first developed
and used for industrial purposes.
 In the 1960s, mid-sized computers were developed and
they were used for remote monitoring and supervisory
control.
 The term “SCADA” was coined in the early 1970s, and the
rise of microprocessors and programmable logic
controllers (PLCs) during that decade gave enterprises a
greater ability to monitor and control automated processes
than ever before.
 Supervisory Control And Data
Acquisition (SCADA)
 In the 1980s and 1990s, SCADA evolved again with the
wide use of local area networks (LAN), which enabled
SCADA systems to be connected to other systems, and the
introduction of PC-based HMI software.
 Modern SCADA Systems:
 Modern SCADA systems allow real-time data from the
plant floor to be accessed from anywhere in the world.
 This access to real-time information allows governments,
businesses, and individuals to make data-driven decisions
about how to improve their processes.
 Without SCADA software, it would be extremely difficult
if not impossible to gather sufficient data for consistently
well-informed decisions.
 Supervisory Control And Data
Acquisition (SCADA)
 Also, most modern SCADA designer applications have
rapid application development (RAD) capabilities that
allow users to design applications relatively easily, even if
they don't have extensive knowledge of software
development.
 Supervisory Control And Data
Acquisition (SCADA)
 SCADA (Supervisory control and data acquisition) is an
industrial automation control system at the core of many
modern industries, including:
◦ Energy
◦ Food and beverage
◦ Manufacturing
◦ Oil and gas
◦ Power
◦ Recycling
◦ Transportation
◦ Water and waste water
◦ And many more
 Supervisory Control And Data
Acquisition (SCADA)
 SCADA systems deploy multiple software and hardware
elements that allow industrial organizations to:
◦ Monitor, gather, and process data,
◦ Interact with and control machines and devices such as valves,
pumps, motors, and more, which are connected through HMI
(human-machine interface) software,
◦ Record events into a log file.
 In basic SCADA architectures, information from sensors
or manual inputs are sent to PLCs (programmable logic
controllers) or RTUs (remote terminal units), which then
send that information to computers with SCADA software.
 SCADA software analyses and displays the data in order to
help operators and other workers to reduce waste and
improve efficiency in the manufacturing process.
 Supervisory Control And Data
Acquisition (SCADA)
 Effective SCADA systems can result in significant savings
of time and money.
 Numerous case studies have been published highlighting
the benefits and savings of using a modern SCADA
software solution such as Ignition.
SCADA Layout