Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

FORENSIC SCIENCE PRENTICE HALL

An Introduction 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
By Richard Saferstein Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 1-1
 Introduction

What is the definition of

Forensic Science ?

FORENSIC SCIENCE PRENTICE HALL

An Introduction 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
By Richard Saferstein Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 1-2
 Introduction
Identify which definition you think was best and
why.
Identify a science class you took in high school and
give a specific example of how you would apply it to
forensic science.
Share something you already know about forensics
and where you learned it (has to be factual!).
Name a specific skill that would be beneficial for a
forensic scientist to have and why.
Name an organization that might employ a forensic
scientist and why.
What does Sherlock Holmes have to do with
Forensic Science?
FORENSIC SCIENCE PRENTICE HALL
An Introduction 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
By Richard Saferstein Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 1-3
 Eyewitness Accounts

FORENSIC SCIENCE PRENTICE HALL

An Introduction 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
By Richard Saferstein Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 1-4
 Eyewitness Accounts
Questions:
1. What time was it on the clock?
2. How many people were in the scene? How many
males? Females?
3. Describe the person at the front of the line. Was
it a man or a woman? Was he or she wearing a
hat? What kind of clothes was the person
wearing? Could you tell how tall the person was?
Did he or she have any distinguishing features?
4. What day of the month was it?
5. Did you notice anything unusual in the picture?
FORENSIC SCIENCE PRENTICE HALL
An Introduction 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
By Richard Saferstein Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 1-5
 Eyewitness Accounts
Consider these questions regarding the
previous activity:
How accurately do people remember what
they have seen?
What factors may play a role in what we
can remember and describe about
something we have witnessed?

FORENSIC SCIENCE PRENTICE HALL

An Introduction 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
By Richard Saferstein Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 1-6
 Definition
In its broadest definition, forensic science is the
application of science to criminal and civil laws.
The subject matter of this course emphasizes
the application of science to those criminal and
civil laws that are enforced by police agencies
in a criminal justice system.
Forensic science owes its origins to individuals
such as Bertillon, Galton, Lattes, Goddard,
Osborn, and Locard, who developed the
principles and techniques needed to identify or
compare physical evidence.

FORENSIC SCIENCE PRENTICE HALL

An Introduction 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
By Richard Saferstein Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 1-7
 History
1775- Carl Wilhelm Scheele -1st test for detecting
arsenic in corpses.
1798- Francois Emanuel Fodere -French physician
who wrote Treatise on Forensic Medicine and
Public Health
1806 Valentin Ross detection of small amounts
of arsenic in the walls of victims stomachs
1814 - Mathieu Orfila spanish physician who
wrote the first book on the detection of poisons
and their effects on animals; established the field
of forensic toxicology.
1828 William Nichol invented the polarizing
microscope
FORENSIC SCIENCE
An Introduction
PRENTICE HALL
2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
By Richard Saferstein Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 1-8
 History
1839 Henri-Louis Bayard developed the 1st
procedure for the microscopic detection of
crimes.
1863 1st test to detect blood.
1850-1860s Photography used to record
images of prisoners and crime scenes
1879 - Alphonse Bertillon - devised the first
scientific system of personal identification;
series of body measurements known as
anthropometry.
1892 - Francis Galton -conducted the first
definitive study of fingerprints and their
classification for identification purposes.
FORENSIC SCIENCE PRENTICE HALL
An Introduction 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
By Richard Saferstein Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 1-9
 History
1893- Hans Gross wrote criminal
investigation; 1st work describing the
application of the scientific method to criminal
investigation
Late 1800s Sir Arthur Conan Doyle wrote
Sherlock Holmes novels; inspired a generation
of forensic scientists; popularized techniques
such as serology, fingerprinting, firearms
identification, & document examination
1901 Karl Landsteiner determined that
blood can be grouped into types (A, B, AB, O)
1915 - Leone Lattes - developed a procedure to
determine blood type from dried bloodstains
and applied to criminal investigations.
FORENSIC SCIENCE PRENTICE HALL
An Introduction 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
By Richard Saferstein Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 1-10
 History
1910 - Albert Osborn wrote Questioned
Documents; pioneering work in the fundamental
principles of document examination.
1910 - Edmond Locard - incorporared Gross
principles within a workable crime laboratory;
responsible for Locards exchange principle: every
criminal can be connected to the crime by dust
carried away from the crime scene.
Early 1900s - Walter McCrone pioneer in the
field of microscopy; often applied to forensic cases
Early 1900s Calvin Goddard developed
techniques using a comparison microscope to
identify bullets fires by a particular firearm.
FORENSIC SCIENCE PRENTICE HALL
An Introduction 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
By Richard Saferstein Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 1-11
 History
Recent developments in analytical chemistry
(chromotagraphy, spectrophotometry,
electrophoresis) have revolutionized forensic
science
1984 - Sir Alec Jeffreys -developed the first
DNA profiling test in 1984.
Computerized databases of fingerprints, DNA,
and bullet markings have also revolutionized
forensic science

FORENSIC SCIENCE PRENTICE HALL

An Introduction 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
By Richard Saferstein Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 1-12
 The Crime Lab
The development of crime laboratories in
the United States has been characterized
by rapid growth accompanied by a lack
of national and regional planning and
coordination.
At present, approximately 350 public
crime laboratories operate at various
levels of governmentfederal, state,
county, and municipal.

FORENSIC SCIENCE PRENTICE HALL

An Introduction 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
By Richard Saferstein Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 1-13
 The Crime Lab
The development of crime laboratories is partly
the result of the following:
1. Supreme Court decisions in the 1960s
responsible for police placing greater
emphasis on scientifically evaluated evidence.
2. The substantial increase in crime in recent
years
3. The number of drug-related cases that require
lab analysis of specimens
4. The introduction of DNA profiling.
FORENSIC SCIENCE PRENTICE HALL
An Introduction 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
By Richard Saferstein Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 1-14
 The Crime Lab
4 Federal Crime Laboratories in the U.S.

1. FBI Dept. of Justice

2. DEA Dept. of Justice
3. ATF Dept. of Justice; Bureau of
Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, &
Explosives
4. U.S. Postal Inspection Service

FORENSIC SCIENCE PRENTICE HALL

An Introduction 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
By Richard Saferstein Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 1-15
 The Crime Lab
Basic services provided by a crime lab
Physical Science Unit - incorporates the
principles of chemistry, physics, and geology to
identify and compare physical evidence.
Biology Unit - applies the knowledge of
biological sciences in order to investigate DNA
samples, blood samples, body fluids, hair, and
fiber samples.
Firearms Unit - investigates discharged
bullets, cartridge cases, shotgun shells, and
ammunition.

FORENSIC SCIENCE PRENTICE HALL

An Introduction 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
By Richard Saferstein Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 1-16
 The Crime Lab
Basic services (continued)
Document Examination Unit - provides the
skills needed for handwriting analysis and other
questioned-document issues.
Photography Unit - applies specialized
photographic techniques for recording and
examining physical evidence.

FORENSIC SCIENCE PRENTICE HALL

An Introduction 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
By Richard Saferstein Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 1-17
 The Crime Lab
Optional Services by Full-Service Labs
Toxicology Unit - examines body fluids and
organs for the presence of drugs and poisons.
Latent Fingerprint Unit - processes and
examines evidence for latent fingerprints.
Polygraph Unit - conducts polygraph or lie
detector tests.
Voiceprint Analysis Unit - attempts to tie a
recorded voice to a particular suspect.
Crime Scene Investigation Unit - dispatches
specially trained personnel to the crime scene to
collect and preserve physical evidence.

FORENSIC SCIENCE PRENTICE HALL

An Introduction 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
By Richard Saferstein Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 1-18
 The Crime Lab

FORENSIC SCIENCE PRENTICE HALL

An Introduction 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
By Richard Saferstein Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 1-19
 Special Forensic Science Services
Forensic Psychiatry is an area in which the relationship
between human behavior and legal proceedings is
examined.
Forensic Odontology involves using teeth to provide
information about the identification of victims when a
body is left in an unrecognizable state. Also
investigates bite marks.
Forensic Engineering is concerned with failure
analysis, accident reconstruction, and causes and
origins of fires or explosions.
Forensic Computer Science involves the examination of
digital evidence.

FORENSIC SCIENCE PRENTICE HALL

An Introduction 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
By Richard Saferstein Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 1-20
The Functions of the Forensic Scientist
Objectives
Compare and contrast the Frye and
Daubert decisions relating to the
admissibility of scientific evidence in the
courtroom
Explain the role and responsibilities of
the expert witness

FORENSIC SCIENCE PRENTICE HALL

An Introduction 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
By Richard Saferstein Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 1-21
 What does a forensic scientist do?
1. Apply scientific knowledge to analyze
evidence recovered during a criminal
investigation. (laboratory)
2. Provide expert testimony; persuade a
jury to accept the conclusions
determined by laboratory analysis
(courtroom)

FORENSIC SCIENCE PRENTICE HALL

An Introduction 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
By Richard Saferstein Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 1-22
 The Frye Standard
The Frye v. United States decision (1923 - set
guidelines for determining the admissibility of
scientific evidence into the courtroom.
To meet the Frye standard, the procedure,
technique, or principle in question must be
generally accepted by the scientific
community.

FORENSIC SCIENCE PRENTICE HALL

An Introduction 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
By Richard Saferstein Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 1-23
 Frye Not Absolute
However, in the 1993 case of Daubert v.
Merrell Dow Pharmaceutical, Inc., the
U.S. Supreme Court asserted that the
Frye standard is not an absolute
prerequisite to the admissibility of
scientific evidence.
Trial judges were said to be ultimately
responsible as gatekeepers for the
admissibility and validity of scientific
evidence presented in their courts, as well
as all expert testimony.
FORENSIC SCIENCE PRENTICE HALL
An Introduction 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
By Richard Saferstein Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 1-24
 Daubert Criteria For Admissibility
Whether the scientific technique or
theory can be tested.
Whether the technique has been subject
to peer review and publication.
The techniques potential rate of error.
Existence and maintenance of standards .
Whether the scientific theory or method
has attracted widespread acceptance
within a relevant scientific community.
FORENSIC SCIENCE PRENTICE HALL
An Introduction 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
By Richard Saferstein Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 1-25
 Providing Expert Testimony

Expert witness an individual whom the

court determines to possess a particular
skill or knowledge in a trade or
profession that is not expected of the
average layperson and that will aid a
court in determining the truth of a
matter at trial

FORENSIC SCIENCE PRENTICE HALL

An Introduction 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
By Richard Saferstein Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 1-26
 Providing Expert Testimony
How does an expert witness demonstrate
ability and competence?
Educational degrees
Participation in special courses
Membership in professional societies
Articles or books published
Occupational experience
Expert Witness Qualifications

FORENSIC SCIENCE PRENTICE HALL

An Introduction 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
By Richard Saferstein Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 1-27
 Providing Expert Testimony
What is the main difference between an
ordinary witness and an expert witness?
The ordinary witness testifies on events
and observations from personal
experience; it must be factual
The expert witness evaluates evidence and
expresses opinions on the significance of
the findings.
Expert Testimony
FORENSIC SCIENCE PRENTICE HALL
An Introduction 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
By Richard Saferstein Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 1-28