Database Systems

Instructor:
Dr. Hamid Turab Mirza

Department of Computer Science

CIIT, Lahore
 Definitions
Database: organized collection of logically
related data
Data: stored representations of meaningful
objects and events
Structured: numbers, text, dates
Unstructured: images, video, documents
Information: data processed to increase
knowledge in the person using the data
Metadata: data that describes the properties and
context of user data
Data in context

Context helps users understand data

Summarized data

Graphical displays turn data into useful

information that managers can use for
decision making and interpretation
Descriptions of the properties or characteristics of the
data, including data types, field sizes, allowable
values, and data context
File Processing Systems
 Disadvantages of File Processing
Program-Data Dependence
All programs maintain metadata for each file they use
Duplication of Data
Different systems/programs have separate copies of the same data
Limited Data Sharing
No centralized control of data
Lengthy Development Times
Programmers must design their own file formats
Excessive Program Maintenance
80% of information systems budget
 Problems with Data Dependency
Each application programmer must maintain
his/her own data
Each application program needs to include
code for the metadata of each file
Each application program must have its own
processing routines for reading, inserting,
updating, and deleting data
Lack of coordination and central control
Non-standard file formats
Old file processing systems at Pine Valley Furniture
Company
Duplicate Data
Problems with Data Redundancy

Waste of space to have duplicate data

Causes more maintenance headaches

The biggest problem:

Data changes in one file could cause

inconsistencies
Compromises in data integrity
 SOLUTION:
The DATABASE Approach
Central repository of shared data
Data is managed by a controlling
agent
Stored in a standardized, convenient
form
 Database Management System
A software system that is used to create, maintain, and provide
controlled access to user databases

Order Filing
System

Invoicing Central database

DBMS
System
Contains employee,
order, inventory,
pricing, and
Payroll
customer data
System

DBMS manages data resources like an operating system manages hardware resources
Advantages of the Database Approach
Program-data independence
Planned data redundancy
Improved data consistency
Improved data sharing
Increased application development productivity
Enforcement of standards
Improved data quality
Improved data accessibility and responsiveness
Reduced program maintenance
Improved decision support
 Costs and Risks of the Database
Approach
New, specialized personnel
Installation and management cost and
complexity
Conversion costs
Need for explicit backup and recovery
Organizational conflict
The Range of Database Applications

Personal databases
Workgroup databases
Departmental/divisional databases
Enterprise database
Typical data
from a
personal
database
Workgroup database with wireless
local area network
Enterprise Database Applications

Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP)

Integrate all enterprise functions
(manufacturing, finance, sales, marketing,
inventory, accounting, human resources)
Data Warehouse
Integrated decision support system derived
from various operational databases
An enterprise data warehouse
Components of the Database Environment
 Components of the
Database Environment
CASE Toolscomputer-aided software engineering
Repositorycentralized storehouse of metadata
Database Management System (DBMS) software
for managing the database
Databasestorehouse of the data
Application Programssoftware using the data
User Interfacetext and graphical displays to users
Data/Database Administratorspersonnel
responsible for maintaining the database
System Developerspersonnel responsible for
designing databases and software
End Userspeople who use the applications and
databases
Elements of the Database Approach

Data models
Graphical system capturing nature and relationship of data
Enterprise Data Modelhigh-level entities and relationships for
the organization
Relational Databases
Database technology involving tables (relations) representing
entities and primary/foreign keys representing relationships
Use of Internet Technology
Networks and telecommunications, distributed databases, client-
server, and 3-tier architectures
Database Applications
Application programs used to perform database activities
(create, read, update, and delete) for database users
 Enterprise Data Model
First step in database development
Specifies scope and general content
Overall picture of organizational data at high
level of abstraction
Entity-relationship diagram
Descriptions of entity types
Relationships between entities
Business rules
Segment from enterprise data model

Enterprise data model

describes the high-
level entities in an
organization and the
relationship between
these entities
Segment of an Enterprise Data Model
One customer
may place many
orders, but each
order is placed by
a single customer
One-to-many
relationship
One order has
many order lines;
each order line is
associated with a
single order
One-to-many
relationship
One product can
be in many
order lines, each
order line refers
to a single
product
One-to-many
relationship
 How Databases fit in to
Organization Wide Information
Systems
 Information Systems Planning

Purposealign information technology with

organizations business strategies

Three steps:
1. Identify strategic planning factors
2. Identify corporate planning objects
3. Develop enterprise model
 Identify Strategic Planning
Factors

Organization goalswhat we hope to

accomplish
Critical success factorswhat MUST work
in order for us to survive
Problem areasweaknesses we now have
 Identify Corporate Planning
Objects
Organizational unitsdepartments
Organizational locations
Business functionsgroups of business
processes
Entity typesthe things we are trying to
model for the database
Information systemsapplication programs
 Develop Enterprise Model

Functional decomposition
Iterative process breaking system description
into finer and finer detail
Enterprise data model
 Example of process decomposition of an
order fulfillment function (Pine Valley Furniture)

Decomposition = breaking
large tasks into smaller tasks
in a hierarchical structure
chart
 Two Approaches to Database
and IS Development
SDLC
System Development Life Cycle
Detailed, well-planned development process
Time-consuming, but comprehensive
Long development cycle
Prototyping
Rapid application development (RAD)
Cursory attempt at conceptual data modeling
Define database during development of initial
prototype
Repeat implementation and maintenance activities
with new prototype versions
 Systems Development Life Cycle

Planning

Analysis

Logical Design

Physical Design

Implementation

Maintenance
 Systems Development Life Cycle
(cont.)
Planning
Planning Purposepreliminary understanding
Deliverablerequest for study
Analysis

Logical Design

Physical Design

Database activity Implementation

enterprise modeling and
early conceptual data
Maintenance
modeling
 Systems Development Life Cycle
(cont.)
Purposethorough requirements analysis and
Planning structuring
Deliverablefunctional system specifications
Analysis
Analysis

Logical Design

Physical Design

Database activityThorough Implementation

and integrated conceptual
data modeling
Maintenance
 Systems Development Life Cycle
(cont.)
Purposeinformation requirements elicitation
Planning and structure
Deliverabledetailed design specifications
Analysis

Logical Design
Logical Design

Physical Design

Database activity Implementation

logical database design
(transactions, forms,
Maintenance
displays, views, data
integrity and security)
 Systems Development Life Cycle
(cont.)
Purposedevelop technology and
Planning organizational specifications
Deliverableprogram/data
Analysis structures, technology purchases,
organization redesigns
Logical Design

Physical Design
Physical Design

Database activity Implementation

physical database design (define
database to DBMS, physical
Maintenance
data organization, database
processing programs)
 Systems Development Life Cycle
(cont.)
Purposeprogramming, testing, training,
Planning installation, documenting
Deliverableoperational programs,
Analysis documentation, training materials

Logical Design

Physical Design

Database activity
database implementation, Implementation
Implementation
including coded programs,
documentation, Maintenance
installation and conversion
 Systems Development Life Cycle
(cont.)
Planning Purposemonitor, repair, enhance
Deliverableperiodic audits
Analysis

Logical Design

Physical Design

Database activity
database maintenance, Implementation
performance analysis
and tuning, error Maintenance
Maintenance
corrections
Prototyping Database Methodology
Prototyping Database Methodology
(cont.)
Prototyping Database Methodology
(cont.)
Prototyping Database Methodology
(cont.)
Prototyping Database Methodology
(cont.)
Managing Projects: People Involved
Business analysts
Systems analysts
Database analysts and data modelers
Users
Programmers
Database architects
Data administrators
Project managers
Other technical experts
 Business Rules

Statements that define or constrain some

aspect of the business
Assert business structure
Control/influence business behavior
Expressed in terms familiar to end users
Automated through DBMS software
 A Good Business Rule is:

Declarativewhat, not how

Preciseclear, agreed-upon meaning
Atomicone statement
Consistentinternally and externally
Expressiblestructured, natural language
Distinctnon-redundant
Business-orientedunderstood by business
people
 A Good Data Name is:
Related to business, not technical,
characteristics
Meaningful and self-documenting
Unique
Readable
Composed of words from an approved list
Repeatable
 Data Definitions
Explanation of a term or fact
Termword or phrase with specific meaning
Factassociation between two or more terms
Guidelines for good data definition
Gathered in conjunction with systems requirements
Accompanied by diagrams
Iteratively created and refined
Achieved by consensus
 E-R Model Constructs
Entities:
Entity instanceperson, place, object, event, concept (often
corresponds to a row in a table)
Entity Typecollection of entities (often corresponds to a table)

Relationships:
Relationship instancelink between entities (corresponds to primary
key-foreign key equivalencies in related tables)
Relationship typecategory of relationshiplink between entity
types

Attributeproperty or characteristic of an entity or relationship type

(often corresponds to a field in a table)
 Sample E-R Diagram - 1

Pine valley furniture company can purchase items

from a number of different suppliers, who then ship
the items to the manufacturer. The items are
assembled into products that are sold to customers
who order the products. Each customer order may
include one or more lines corresponding to the
Products appearing on that order.
Sample E-R Diagram A SUPPLIER may supply many ITEMs (by
may supply we mean the supplier may not
supply any items). Each ITEM is supplied by
any number of SUPPLIERs (by is supplied we
mean must be supplied by at least one supplier).
Each ITEM must be used in the assembly of at
least one PRODUCT, and may be used in many
products. Conversely, each PRODUCT must use
one or more ITEMs.
A SUPPLIER may send many SHIPMENTs.
On the other hand, each shipment must be sent
by exactly one SUPPLIER.
A SHIPMENT must include one (or more)
ITEMs. An ITEM may be included on several
SHIPMENTs.
A CUSTOMER may submit any number of
ORDERs. However, each ORDER must be
submitted by exactly one CUSTOMER.
An ORDER must request one (or more)
PRODUCTs. A given PRODUCT may not be
requested on nay ORDER, or may be requested
one one or more orders.
Basic E-R notation

Entity
Attribute
symbols
symbols

A special entity
that is also a Relationship
relationship symbols

Relationship
degrees specify
number of
entity types Relationship
involved cardinalities
specify how
many of each
entity type is
allowed
 What Should an Entity Be?
SHOULD BE:
An object that will have many instances in
the database
An object that will be composed of multiple
attributes
An object that we are trying to model
SHOULD NOT BE:
A user of the database system
An output of the database system (e.g., a
report)
Example of inappropriate entities

System System
user Inappropriate output
entities

Appropriate
entities
 Attributes
Attributeproperty or characteristic of an
entity or relationahip type
Classifications of attributes:
Required versus Optional Attributes
Simple versus Composite Attribute
Single-Valued versus Multivalued Attribute
Stored versus Derived Attributes
Identifier Attributes
 Identifiers (Keys)
Identifier (Key)An attribute (or
combination of attributes) that uniquely
identifies individual instances of an entity
type
Simple versus Composite Identifier
Candidate Identifieran attribute that
could be a keysatisfies the requirements
for being an identifier
 Characteristics of Identifiers

Will not change in value

Will not be null
No intelligent identifiers (e.g., containing
locations or people that might change)
A composite attribute

An attribute
broken into
component parts

Entity with multivalued attribute (Skill)

and derived attribute (Years_Employed)

Multivalued
an employee can have
Derived
more than one skill
from date
employed and
current date
Simple and composite identifier attributes

The identifier is boldfaced and underlined

Simple example of time-stamping

This attribute
that is both
multivalued and
composite
 Sample E-R Diagram 2

ABC housing society is a medium sized local authority. One of the responsibilities of the
Society is the maintenance and repair of Society owned housing within its boundaries. The
authority wishes to develop an information system to monitor information on housing
repair work, a description of which is as follows:

For the purpose of housing repair work, the society is divided into a number of areas.
Each area is subdivided into streets or roads, each street or road in likely to have a number
of houses along it. Details of each house are held, along with details of each instance of
repair work carried out to a specific house. Each area is maintained by a single repair team,
although a team may be responsible for more than one area. A repair team consists of a
number of employees, one of whom is designated the team supervisor. The team are
allocated a number of vehicles for use in their work, which are generally used by the
owning team only, although are occasionally borrowed by other Teams. Each team is
based at a maintenance depot, and in some cases, more than one team may be based at a
single depot.
 Sample E-R Diagram - 2 (Entities Identified)

ABC housing society is a medium sized local authority. One of the responsibilities of the
Society is the maintenance and repair of Society owned housing within its boundaries. The
authority wishes to develop an information system to monitor information on housing
repair work, a description of which is as follows:

For the purpose of housing repair work, the society is divided into a number of areas.
Each area is subdivided into streets or roads, each street or road in likely to have a
number of houses along it. Details of each house are held, along with details of each
instance of repair work carried out to a specific house. Each area is maintained by a
single repair team, although a team may be responsible for more than one area. A repair
team consists of a number of employees, one of whom is designated the team supervisor.
The team are allocated a number of vehicles for use in their work, which are generally
used by the owning team only, although are occasionally borrowed by other Teams.
Each team is based at a maintenance depot, and in some cases, more than one team may be
based at a single depot.