Lecture 2
TE 402
RF & Microwave Engineering
Engr. Ghulam Shabbir
Electromagnetic Theory
Analysis Techniques in Microwave Theory
In general, circuit theory is not applicable to
microwave problems.
Circuit theory is derived from Maxwells equations
based on certain assumptions about the fields within
the circuit elements.
Specifically, the circuit elements must be small relative
to wavelength for circuit equations to be valid.
In this sense, microwave components must be modeled
by distributed elements, not lumped elements.
For this reason, we must use field theory solutions
(Maxwells equations) for microwave applications.
Maxwells Equations
Instantaneous, symmetric form
Maxwells Equations
Instantaneous, symmetric form
The quantities of magnetic current density M and magnetic
charge density m are nonphysical and included in the
symmetric forms of Maxwells equation for mathematical
convenience.
These magnetic sources may be used to simplify the
mathematics of particular problems involving actual
electric currents and charges.
Maxwells Equations
Instantaneous, symmetric form
The flux and field quantities are related by the
constitutive relations:
Maxwells Equations
Instantaneous, symmetric form
The instantaneous Maxwells equations are valid, given
any type of time-dependence for the electromagnetic
fields.
Most applications in microwave engineering involve
fields which have a sinusoidal (harmonic) time-
dependence.
This harmonic time-dependence allows us to simplify
Maxwells equations by writing them in terms of phasors
just like we use in circuit analysis.
Maxwells Equations
Instantaneous, symmetric form
Maxwells Equations
Instantaneous, symmetric form
According to Eulers identity, we may write the equation
above as
Maxwells Equations
Instantaneous, symmetric form
Maxwells Equations
Phasor form
Relation of instantaneous quantities to phasor
quantities ...
Maxwells Equations
Complex Permittivity and Permeability
In order to account for dielectric and magnetic losses in
media where time-harmonic electromagnetic fields exist,
we may define a complex permittivity and permeability.
In the case of dielectrics, we may combine the
conductivity losses with the dielectric losses according
to Maxwells equations.
The conduction current density J in a given medium is
defined by
Maxwells Equations
Complex Permittivity and Permeability
We may write a single equation which includes dielectric
and conductor losses by incorporating the complex
permittivity and the conduction current equation into
Amperes law:
since
&
Maxwells Equations
Complex Permittivity and Permeability
Maxwells Equations
Material Classifications
Maxwells Equations
Electromagnetic Field Boundary Conditions
Knowledge of how the components of an electromagnetic
field behave at the interface between two different media is
important in the solution of many problems in microwave
engineering.
A simple interface between two media is shown below.
The vector n is defined as the unit normal to the interface
pointing into region 2.
Maxwells Equations
Electromagnetic Field Boundary Conditions
Tangential component
of magnetic field
Tangential component intensity H is Tangential component
of electric flux intensity discontinuous in the of magnetic flux density
Tangential component D is discontinuous presence of surface B is discontinuous.
of electric field intensity across the interface . current densities. B1t /1=B2t/2
E is continuous across D1t /1=D2t/2 H1t - H2t = K
the interface ,
regardless of charge
densities on the
surface.
E1t =E2t
Normal component of
magnetic flux density B Normal component of Normal
is continuous across the magnetic field intensity Normal component of component of
interface between two H is discontinuous electric flux density D electric field
materials, regardless of across the interface. is continuous except in intensity E is
current charge densities 1H1t= 2H2t the presence of surface discontinuous.
on the surface. surface charge densitiy. 1E1t =2
B1n =B2n D1n - D2n= E2t
Maxwells Equations
Electromagnetic Field Boundary Conditions
The general boundary conditions are:
n( ) defines the normal
components of the vector
n ( ) defines the tangential
components of the vector
Note that the individual components of the vector fields
are discontinuous at the interface by an amount equal to
the respective surface current or charge on the boundary.
In most applications, we do not encounter all of the
surface sources.
These general boundary conditions can be specialized to
problems involving specific combinations of materials.
Maxwells Equations
Interface Between Two Lossless Dielectric Materials
Thus, the normal components of electric and magnetic
flux and the tangential components of electric and
magnetic field are continuous across a lossless dielectric
interface.
Maxwells Equations
Perfect Electric Conductor (PEC)
Note that the tangential electric field is always zero on the
surface of a PEC.
The tangential magnetic field on a PEC is equal to the
surface current while the normal electric flux is equal to
the surface charge.
Maxwells Equations
Perfect Magnetic Conductor (PMC)
Note that the tangential magnetic field is always zero on the
surface of a PMC.
The tangential electric field on a PEC is equal to the negative of
the surface magnetic current while the normal electric flux is
equal to the surface magnetic charge.
Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagnetic Waves
Taking the curl of (1) and inserting (2) yields
while taking the curl of (2) and inserting (1) yields
in (5) and (6) gives
Electromagnetic Waves
However, the divergence terms in (7) and (8) are zero in
the source-free region. This gives the wave equations
(Helmholtz equations) for the electric and magnetic
field.
The wave equations for the E and H show that energy
will propagate away from a time-varying
electromagnetic source in the form of electromagnetic
waves.
Electromagnetic Waves
Plane Waves
Plane waves are the most commonly encountered wave types
in electromagnetic applications and are the easiest to define
mathematically.
Plane wave
A plane wave is wave whose phase is constant over a set of
planes.
the electric and magnetic field of a plane wave lie in the plane
which is perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation .
(Direction of E H is the direction of wave propagation)
Uniform Plane wave - the electric and magnetic fields of a
uniform plane wave are uniform in the plane which is
perpendicular to the direction of propagation
(Magnitude of E and H vary only in the direction of wave
propagation).
Both, Magnitude and phase of a plane wave are constant.
Electromagnetic Waves
Example - Uniform Plane Wave
Electromagnetic waves in free space are typical uniform plane waves.
The electric and magnetic
fields are mutually
perpendicular to each other
and to the direction of
propagation of the waves.
Electromagnetic Waves
Example - Uniform Plane Wave
The uniform plane wave for this example has only
o a z-component of electric field and
o an x-component of magnetic field
o which are both functions of only y
The vector Laplacian operator (2 ) which appears in the
wave equations for E and H may be expanded in
rectangular coordinates as
Electromagnetic Waves
Example - Uniform Plane Wave
Given the vector Laplacian definition, the wave equations for
E and H reduce to
where the partial derivatives have been replaced by pure
derivatives given that the field components are functions of
only one variable.
Note that the right hand side of the equations above is the
zero vector.
Electromagnetic Waves
Example - Uniform Plane Wave
Thus, by equating the vector components on both sides of
the equation, we may write scalar equations for Ez and Hx
The general solutions to these D.E.s are
where E1 , E2 , H1, and H2 are constants.
Electromagnetic Waves
Example - Uniform Plane Wave
The instantaneous forms of the wave field components are
and
Electromagnetic Waves
Example - Uniform Plane Wave
The direction of propagation for the plane wave may be
determined by investigating the points of constant phase
on the waves.
Given the +ay traveling wave of our example, the constants
E1 and H1 must be zero so that
Electromagnetic Waves
Plane Wave Parameters
Velocity of propagation (vp) of the plane wave is found by
differentiating the position of the point of constant phase
with respect to position.
Electromagnetic Waves
Plane Wave Parameters
The radian frequency of the plane wave is defined by
With the wave traveling at a velocity of vp , it takes one
period (T) for the wave to travel one wavelength ().
The wave number definition in terms of shows that the all
waves see a phase change of 2 radians per wavelength.
Electromagnetic Waves
Plane Wave Parameters
Intrinsic Impedance
Plane waves have the characteristic that:
The ratio of the electric field to magnetic field at any point
is a constant
which is related to the constitutive parameters of the
medium.
This property can be illustrated by using Maxwells
equations with our example of plane wave.
Electromagnetic Waves
Plane Wave Parameters
Electromagnetic Waves
Plane Waves in Lossy Media
A plane wave loses energy as it propagates through a lossy
medium.
A medium is defined as a lossy medium if it is characterized
by any or all of the following loss mechanisms:
Dielectric and magnetic losses are typically small and can be
neglected for most materials.
However, conduction losses can be significant for commonly
encountered materials.
Electromagnetic Waves
Plane Waves in Lossy Media
Electromagnetic Waves
Plane Waves in Lossy Media
Electromagnetic Waves
Plane Waves in Lossy Media
Electromagnetic Waves
Plane Waves in Lossy Media
Given the same +y-directed uniform plane wave
assumed in the lossless example, the differential
equations governing the plane wave field components in
the lossy medium are
which have general solutions of the form
Electromagnetic Waves
Poyntings Theorem
The corresponding phasor form of the Poynting vector S is
Electromagnetic Waves
Poyntings Theorem
Given a volume V enclosed by the surface S which contains
electric and magnetic sources J and M, Poyntings theorem
for the volume may be written as
Electromagnetic Waves
Poyntings Theorem
Poyntings theorem states that the complex power produced by
the sources is equal to the power transmitted out of the volume
plus that dissipated in the form of heat (through conductor,
dielectric and magnetic losses) plus the 2 times the net reactive
stored energy.
Electromagnetic Waves
Complex Poyntings Theorem
At what rate will electromagnetic energy be transmitted through
free space or any medium, be stored in the electric and magnetic
field, and be dissipated as heat?
From the standpoint of complex power in terms of the complex
field vectors, the time average of any two complex vectors is equal
to the real part of the product of one complex vector multiplied by
the complex conjugate of the other vector.
Hence the time average of the instantaneous Poynting vector in
steady state is given by
(1)
Electromagnetic Waves
Complex Poyntings Theorem
It is necessary to define a complex Poynting vector as
(2)
Maxwells equation in frequency domain for the electric and
magnetic fields are
(3)
(4)
Dot multiplication of Eq. (3) by H* and of the conjugate of Eq. (4) by
E yields
(5)
(6)
Then subtraction of Eq. (5) from Eq. (6) results in
(7)
Electromagnetic Waves
Complex Poyntings Theorem
(8)
Substituting Eqs. (5) and (2) into Eq. (8), we have
(9)
Integration of Eq. (9) over a volume and application of Gausss
theorem to the last term on the right-hand side give
(10)
where
Electromagnetic Waves
Complex Poyntings Theorem
Eq. (10) is well known as the complex Poynting theorem or the
Poynting theorem in frequency domain.
Furthermore, let
Electromagnetic Waves
Complex Poyntings Theorem
The complex Poynting theorem shown in Eq. (10) can be simplified
to
(11)
This theorem states that the total complex power fed into a
volume is equal to the algebraic sum of the active power
dissipated as heat, plus the reactive power proportional to the
difference between time-average magnetic and electric energies
stored in the volume, plus the complex power transmitted across
the surface enclosed by the volume.
Maxwells Equations
Equations in point (differential) form of time-varying
B ( E 0, M 0)
E M,
t
D
H J, J 0, Continuity Equation
t t
D ,
B 0
v A s A ds ,
Divergence theorem
Equations in integral form
B s A c A dl ,
C E dl
S t
ds , Faraday's Law Stokes' theorem
D
C H dl S t ds I , Ampere's Law
S Dds Q, Gauss's Law
S Bds 0, No free magnetic charge
Generally, EM fields and sources vary with space (x, y, z) and time (t) coordinates.
Time-Harmonic Fields
When steady-state condition is considered, phasor representations of
Maxwells equations can be written as : (time dependence by multiply e -jt )
E jB M ,
H jD J ,
D ,
B 0
Where MKS system of units is used, and
E : electric field intensity, in V/m.
H : magnetic field intensity, in A/m.
D : electric flux density, in Coul/m2.
B : magnetic flux density, in Wb/m2.
M : (fictitious) magnetic current density, in V/m2.
J : electric current density, in A/m2.
: electric charge density, in Coul/m3.
ultimate source of the electromagnetic field.
Q : total charge contained in closed surface S.
I : total electric current flow through surface S.
D
: Displacement current density, in A/m2 EM wave propagatiom
In free space In isotropic materials
(e.g. Crystal structure and ionized gases)
D 0 E, Dx Ex Bx Hx
B 0 H y 33 E y ,
D y 33 H y
B
D E B H
z z z z
where 0 = 8.85410-12 farad/m is the permittivity of free space.
0 = 410-7 Henry/m is the permeability of free space.
Question : 2(6) equations are not enough to solve 4(12) unknown
field components
Constitutive Relations
D 0 E Pe E , ' j " 0 (1 e );
Complex
B 0 ( H Pm ) H , ' j " 0 (1 m ) and
where Pe is electric polarization, Pm is magnetic polarization,
e is electric susceptibility, and m is magnetic susceptibility.
The negative imaginary part of and account for loss in medium (heat).
J E , Ohm's law from an EM field point of view
H j D J
=j E E
=j ' E ( " ) E
=j ( ' j " j )E
"
tan , Loss tangent
'
where is conductivity (conductor loss),
is loss due to dielectric damping,
( + ) can be seen as the total effective conductivity,
is loss angle.
In a lossless medium, and are real numbers.
Microwave materials are usually characterized by specifying the real
permittivity, =r0,and the loss tangent at a certain frequency.
It is useful to note that, after a problem has been solved assuming a
lossless dielectric, loss can easily be introduced by replaced the real with
a complex .
Example1.1 : In a source-free region, the electric field intensity is given as
follow. Find the signal frequency?
E z 4e j ( x3 y ) V/m
Solution :
x y z
1 12 x 4 y
E j0 H H e j ( x 3 y )
j0 x y z 0
0 0 4e j ( x 3 y )
H j0 E
x y z
1 16 z j ( x 3 y )
E 2 e
j0 x y z 0 0
12 j ( x 3 y ) 4
e e j ( x 3 y ) 0
0 0
16 2
4 6 108 rad/s
0 0
2
0 0
Boundary Conditions
Fields at a dielectric interface
n D1 n D2 , n B1 n B2 ,
n E1 n E2 , n H1 n H 2
Fields at the interface with a perfect conductor (Electric Wall)
n D S , n B 0,
n E 0, n H JS Assumed conductivi ty
It is analogous to the relations between voltage and current at the end of
a short-circuited transmission line.
Magnetic Wall boundary condition (not really exist)
n D 0,
n B 0,
n E M S ,
nH 0
It is analogous to the relations between voltage and current at the end of
a open-circuited transmission line.
Helmholtz (Vector) Wave Equation
In a source-free, linear, isotropic, and homogeneous
medium
E jH , 2 E 2 E 0,
H jE 2 H 2 H 0
Solutions of above wave equations
Plane wave in a lossless medium
jkz jkz
E x H y z
Ex ( z) E e E e ,
Transverse Electromagnetic Wave
1
H y ( z) [ E e jkz E e jkz ], (TEM)
k
is defined the wavenumber, or propagation constant
, of the medium; its unit are 1/m.
E
is wave impedance, intrinsic impedance of medium.
k H
In free space, 0=377.
dz 1
vp is phase velocity, defined as a fixed phase point on
dt k the wave travels.
In free space, vp=c=2.998108 m/s.
2 2v p v p
is wavelength, defined as the distance between two
k f successive maximum (or minima) on the wave.
In wave equations, j k for following conditions.
Plane wave in a general lossy medium
j j 1 j j ( ' j " ) j ' (1 j tan )
: Complex propagation constant (m-1)
: Attenuation constant(Np/m;1Np/m=8.69dB/m), : Phase constant(rad/m)
Good conductor
Condition: (1) >> or (2) >>
1 2 is skin depth or penetration depth, defined as the
s
amplitude of fields in the conductor decay by an amount
1/e or 36.8%, after traveling a distance of one skin depth.
Microwave Engr. Distinctions
1 - Circuit Lengths:
Low frequency ac or rf circuits
time delay, t, of a signal through a device
t = L/v T = 1/f where T=period of ac signal
but f=v so 1/f= /v
so L , I.e. size of circuit is generally much
smaller than the wavelength (or propagation
times or phase shift 0)
Microwaves: L
propagation times not negligible
Optics: L
Microwave Distinctions
2 - Skin Depth:
degree to which electromagnetic field
penetrates a conducting material
microwave currents tend to flow along the
surface of conductors
so resistive effect is increased, i.e.
R RDC a / 2 , where
= skin depth = 1/ ( f o cond)1/2
where, RDC = 1/ ( a2 cond)
a = radius of the wire
R waves in Cu >R low freq. in Cu
Microwave Engr. Distinctions
3 - Measurement Technique
At low frequencies circuit properties
measured by voltage and current
But at microwaves frequencies, voltages
and currents are not uniquely defined; so
impedance and power are measured rather
than voltage and current
Circuit Limitations
Simple circuit: 10V, ac driven, copper wire,
#18 guage, 1 inch long and 1 mm in
diameter: dc resistance is 0.4 m,
L=0.027H
f = 0; XL = 2 f L 0.18 f 10-6 =0
f = 60 Hz; XL 10-5 = 0.01 m
f = 6 MHz; XL 1
f = 6 GHz; XL 103 = 1 k
So, wires and printed circuit boards cannot be
used to connect microwave devices; we need
transmission lines, waveguides, striplines, and
microstrip
High-Frequency Resistors
Inductance and resistance of wire resistors
under high-frequency conditions (f 500
MHz):
L/RDC a / (2 )
R /RDC a / (2 )
where, RDC = /( a2 cond)
a = radius of the wire
= skin depth = 1/ ( f o cond)-1/2
Reference: Ludwig & Bretchko, RF Circuit Design
High Frequency Capacitor
Equivalent circuit consists of parasitic lead
conductance L, series resistance Rs describing
the losses in the the lead conductors and
dielectric loss resistance Re = 1/Ge (in parallel)
with the Capacitor.
Ge = C tan s, where
tan s = (/diel) -1 = loss tangent
Reference: Ludwig & Bretchko, RF Circuit Design
Math Review
Misalkan A dan B interseksi on vectors
A B A B cos : scalar atau dot product,
projeksi satu vecto r terhadap lainnya
A B A B sin C
Perubahan yg didefisika n oleh partial /x menghasilk an
x y z
x y z
Untuk systems coordinate berikutnya
jika sebuah field memiliki scalar u u(x, y, z)
bervariasi dalam ruang (Space)
u u u
u x y z ; gradient : rate of change
x y z
Ax Ay Az
A ; Divergence : net outward flow
x y z
Ay Ax
( A) z ( ) z ; Curl or ROT (Russian)
x y
rotation (pusaran daun yg mengalir di sungai)
A A 0; u 0 or curl of gradient 0
A ( B C ) ( A B) C; ( C ) ( ) C 0
or div of curl 0
A ds ( A)dV ; Divergence theorem
s
v
A d ( A)ds; Stokes (batu) theorem
s
Maxwells Equations
D Gauss
B 0 No Magnetic Poles
E B / t Faradays Laws
H J D / t Amperes Circuit Law
Characteristics of Medium
Constitutive Relationships
D E, ro , Dielectric Permitivit y
B H, or, Magnetic Permeabili ty
Jc E, J Jc Jv, Jv Convective Current
Assumption s
J 0, in the medium itself, not so on surfaces
, , scalars except ferrites, plasma
E, H proportion al to exp(j t - z)
where j, attentuati on constant
phase constant, z direction of propagatio n
Fields in a Dielectric Materials
Assume D oE P, and non magnetic, so o
and J 0 (D electric flux or displaceme nt density)
P dipole moment density e oE, e dielectric suceptibil ity
D o(1 e )E E
o(1 e ) j
, for good dielectric (3 or 4 orders of magnitude)
accounts for loss in the medium (heat)
negative due to entergy conservati on 0
Fields in a Conductive Materials
J J c E, where E fields vary as e jt
D E
H J E E jE
t t
j( )E ( j j( j))E
j
j( j j )E [ j ( )]E
where is the effective conductivi ty
effective loss tangent tan
Wave Equation
Consider /t j
E -jH, H jE
( E) ( E) - 2 E ( jH )
( j )( j )E
2 E - 2 E;
similarly 2 H - 2 H;
define : k 2 propagatio n constant of waves
in medium described by and
General Procedure to Find Fields in a
Guided Structure
1- Use wave equations to find the z
component of Ez and/or Hz
note classifications
TEM: Ez = Hz= 0
TE: Ez = 0, Hz 0
TM: Hz = 0, Ez 0
HE or Hybrid: Ez 0, Hz 0
General Procedure to Find Fields in a
Guided Structure
2- Use boundary conditions to solve for any
constraints in our general solution for Ez
and/or Hz
n E 0, or E t 0 on surface of perfect conductor
n E s /
n H J s
n H 0, or H n 0 on surface of perfect conductor
where n normal to the surface of conductor
Plane Waves in Lossless Medium
2 E k 2 E 0, where k is real since and are real
in a lossless medium
E E x and /x /y 0
2E x jkz jkz
k 2
E 0 E ( z ) E e E e
z 2 x x
or in the time domain :
E x (z, t ) E (cos( t kz)) E (cos( t kz))
t kz constant moving in the z direction
Phase Velocity
Fixed phase point trav els at a velocity
dz d t - constant 1
vp ( )
dt dt k k
1
in free space v p c 3 108 m/sec
o o
Wavelength : distance between 2 successive maxima
(t - kz) - (t - k(z )) 2 k
2 2v p v p
or v p f
k f
in free space : v p f c
Wave Impedance
H
By Maxwell' s eqn : E - jH
t
E x
0; so z E x x y
x y z z
jkE e jkz jkE e jkz jH y
k
Hy (E e jkz E e jkz )
where or E/H
k
Plane Waves in a Lossy Medium
E jH and H jE E
E j( H) j( jE E )
E ( E ) 2 E
E (1 j )E 0
2 2
(1 j ) 2 wave number , now complex
2
j j (1 j ) note 0, 0
and j and k
Wave Impedance in Lossy Medium
as before E E x x and /x /y 0
Ex
2
2 2 E x 0 E x (z) E e z E e z
z
z z j z z
e e e time domain e cos(t z)
j z
Hy (E e E e z )
j
where wave impedance with losses
Plane Waves in a good Conductor
practical case
j j / j j 2 /
(1 j) / 2 / 2
s 1 / 2 / skin depth
at 10 GHz, s 1m for most metals (Al, Cu, Ag, Au)
at microwave frequencie s, currents flow on the surface
