WEL COME

PRAVEEN M JIGAJINNI
PGT (Computer Science)
MCA, MSc[IT], MTech[IT],MPhil (Comp.Sci), PGDCA, ADCA,
Dc. Sc. & Engg.
Reference Book
CLASS XI
By
Sumita Arora
 CHAPTER 11

USER
DEFINED
FUNCTIONS
 Function Definition

Using functions we can structure our programs in a

more modular way, accessing all the potential that
structured programming can offer to us in C++.
A function is a group of statements that is executed
when it is called from some point of the program.
The following is its format:
 Function Definition
type name ( parameter1, parameter2, ...)
{
statements
}
where:
type is the data type specifier of the data returned by the function.
name is the identifier by which it will be possible to call the
function.
parameters (as many as needed): Each parameter consists of a
data type specifier followed by an identifier, like any regular
variable declaration (for example: int x) and which acts within the
function as a regular local variable. They allow to pass arguments
to the function when it is called. The different parameters are
separated by commas.
statements is the function's body. It is a block of statements
surrounded by braces { }.
 Here you have the first
function example:
// function example
#include <iostream>
int addition (int a, int b)
{
int r;
r=a+b;
return (r);
}
int main ()
{
int z;
z = addition (5,3);
cout << "The result is " << z;
return 0;
}
WORKING OF FUNCTION
We can see how the main function begins by
declaring the variable z of type int. Right
after that, we see a call to a function called
addition. Paying attention we will be able to
see the similarity between the structure of
the call to the function and the declaration of
the function itself some code lines above:

The parameters and arguments have a clear

correspondence. Within the main function
we called to addition passing two values: 5
and 3, that correspond to the int a and int b
parameters declared for function addition
WORKING OF FUNCTION

At the point at which the function is called from
within main, the control is lost by main and
passed to function addition. The value of both
arguments passed in the call (5 and 3) are copied
to the local variables int a and int b within the
function.
Function addition declares another local variable
(int r), and by means of the expression r=a+b, it
assigns to r the result of a plus b. Because the
actual parameters passed for a and b are 5 and 3
respectively, the result is 8.

The following line of code:

return (r);
WORKING OF FUNCTION
finalizes function addition, and returns the control back to
the function that called it in the first place (in this case,
main). At this moment the program follows its regular
course from the same point at which it was interrupted by
the call to addition. But additionally, because the return
statement in function addition specified a value: the content
of variable r (return (r);), which at that moment had a value
of 8. This value becomes the value of evaluating the
function call.

So being the value returned by a function the value given to

the function call itself when it is evaluated, the variable z
will be set to the value returned by addition (5, 3), that is 8.
To explain it another way, you can imagine that the call to a
function (addition (5,3)) is literally replaced by the value it
returns (8).
The following line of code in main is:
cout << "The result is " << z;
FUNCTION PROTOTYPE

A Function Prototype is a
declaration of the function that tells
the program about the type of the
value returned by the function and
the type of argument.
FUNCTION PROTOTYPE
DECLARING FUNCTIONS
Until now, we have defined all of the
functions before the first appearance of calls to
them in the source code. These calls were
generally in function main which we have always
left at the end of the source code. If you try to
repeat some of the examples of functions
described so far, but placing the function main
before any of the other functions that were called
from within it, you will most likely obtain
compiling errors. The reason is that to be able to
call a function it must have been declared in
some earlier point of the code, like we have done
in all our examples.
FUNCTION PROTOTYPE
But there is an alternative way to avoid
writing the whole code of a function before it can
be used in main or in some other function. This
can be achieved by declaring just a prototype of
the function before it is used, instead of the entire
definition. This declaration is shorter than the
entire definition, but significant enough for the
compiler to determine its return type and the
types of its parameters.
FUNCTION PROTOTYPE
Its form is:

type name ( argument_type1, argument_type2,

...);

It is identical to a function definition, except that

it does not include the body of the function itself
(i.e., the function statements that in normal
definitions are enclosed in braces { }) and instead
of that we end the prototype declaration with a
mandatory semicolon (;).
FUNCTION PROTOTYPE
The parameter enumeration does not need to
include the identifiers, but only the type
specifiers. The inclusion of a name for each
parameter as in the function definition is optional
in the prototype declaration. For example, we can
declare a function called protofunction with two
int parameters with any of the following
declarations:
int protofunction (int first, int second);
int protofunction (int, int);
 FUNCTION PROTOTYPE
// declaring functions prototypes
#include <iostream>
void odd (int a);
void even (int a);
int main ()
{
int i;
do {
cout << "Type a number (0 to exit): ";
cin >> i;
odd (i);
} while (i!=0);
return 0;
}
 FUNCTION PROTOTYPE
void odd (int a)
{
if ((a%2)!=0) cout << "Number is odd.\n";
else even (a);
}
void even (int a)
{
if ((a%2)==0) cout << "Number is even.\n";
else odd (a);
}
FUNCTION PROTOTYPE
This example is indeed not an example of
efficiency. I am sure that at this point you can
already make a program with the same result, but
using only half of the code lines that have been
used in this example. Anyway this example
illustrates how prototyping works. Moreover, in
this concrete example the prototyping of at least
one of the two functions is necessary in order to
compile the code without errors.
FUNCTION PROTOTYPE
The first things that we see are the declaration of functions odd
and even:
void odd (int a);
void even (int a);

This allows these functions to be used before they are defined, for
example, in main, which now is located where some people find it
to be a more logical place for the start of a program: the beginning
of the source code.

Anyway, the reason why this program needs at least one of the
functions to be declared before it is defined is because in odd
there is a call to even and in even there is a call to odd. If none of
the two functions had been previously declared, a compilation
error would happen, since either odd would not be visible from
even (because it has still not been declared), or even would not be
visible from odd (for the same reason).
FUNCTION PROTOTYPE
Having the prototype of all
functions together in the same place
within the source code is found
practical by some programmers, and
this can be easily achieved by
declaring all functions prototypes at
the beginning of a program.
DEFAULT ARGUMENTS
When declaring a function we can specify a
default value for each of the last parameters.
This value will be used if the corresponding
argument is left blank when calling to the
function. To do that, we simply have to use
the assignment operator and a value for the
arguments in the function declaration. If a
value for that parameter is not passed when
the function is called, the default value is
used, but if a value is specified this default
value is ignored and the passed value is
used instead. For example:
 DEFAULT ARGUMENTS
// default values in functions
#include <iostream.h>
int divide (int a, int b=2)
{
int r;
r=a/b;
return (r);
}
int main ()
{
cout << divide (12);
cout << endl;
cout << divide (20,4);
return 0;
}
DEFAULT ARGUMENTS
As we can see in the body of the program there
are two calls to function divide. In the first one:
divide (12)
we have only specified one argument, but the
function divide allows up to two. So the function
divide has assumed that the second parameter is
2 since that is what we have specified to happen
if this parameter was not passed (notice the
function declaration, which finishes with int b=2,
not just int b). Therefore the result of this function
call is 6 (12/2).
 DEFAULT ARGUMENTS
In the second call:
divide (20,4)

there are two parameters, so the

default value for b (int b=2) is ignored
and b takes the value passed as
argument, that is 4, making the result
returned equal to 5 (20/4).
 CONSTANTS
By constant arguments meant that the
function can not modify these arguments. If
you pass constant values to the function, then
the function can not modify the values as the
values are constants.
In order to make the argument constant to
the function we can use the keyword const
as shown bellow,
int sum(const int a , const int b);
 CALL BY VALUE
Until now, in all the functions we have seen, the
arguments passed to the functions have been
passed by value. This means that when calling a
function with parameters, what we have passed
to the function were copies of their values but
never the variables themselves. For example,
suppose that we called our first function addition
using the following code:
int x=5, y=3, z;
z = addition ( x , y );

What we did in this case was to call to function

addition passing the values of x and y, i.e. 5 and 3
respectively, but not the variables x and y
themselves.
 CALL BY VALUE
What we did in this case was to call
to function addition passing the values
of x and y, i.e. 5 and 3 respectively, but
not the variables x and y themselves.
 CALL BY VALUE
This way, when the function addition is
called, the value of its local variables a and b
become 5 and 3 respectively, but any
modification to either a or b within the
function addition will not have any effect in
the values of x and y outside it, because
variables x and y were not themselves
passed to the function, but only copies of their
values at the moment the function was called.
 CALL BY VALUE
But there might be some cases where
you need to manipulate from inside a
function the value of an external
variable. For that purpose we can use
arguments passed by reference, as in
the function duplicate of the following
example:
CALL BY REFERENCE
The call by reference method uses a
different mechanism. In place of passing
value to the function being called.
A reference is an alias (i.e different name)
for a predefined variable.
CALL BY REFERENCE
There might be some cases where
you need to manipulate from inside a
function the value of an external
variable. For that purpose we can use
arguments passed by reference, as in
the function duplicate of the following
example:
 CALL BY REFERENCE
// passing parameters by reference
#include <iostream>
void duplicate (int& a, int& b, int& c)
{
a*=2;
b*=2;
c*=2;
}
int main ()
{
int x=1, y=3, z=7;
duplicate (x, y, z);
cout << "x=" << x << ", y=" << y << ", z=" << z;
return 0;
}
 CALL BY REFERENCE
The first thing that should call your attention is that in
the declaration of duplicate the type of each parameter was
followed by an ampersand sign (&). This ampersand is what
specifies that their corresponding arguments are to be
passed by reference instead of by value.

When a variable is passed by reference we are

not passing a copy of its value, but we are somehow
passing the variable itself to the function and any
modification that we do to the local variables will have an
effect in their counterpart variables passed as
arguments in the call to the function.
CALL BY REFERENCE
CALL BY REFERENCE
To explain it in another way, we
associate a, b and c with the arguments
passed on the function call (x, y and z)
and any change that we do on a within the
function will affect the value of x outside
it. Any change that we do on b will affect
y, and the same with c and z.
That is why our program's output, that
shows the values stored in x, y and z after
the call to duplicate, shows the values of
all the three variables of main doubled.
 CALL BY REFERENCE
If when declaring the following
function:
void duplicate (int& a, int& b, int& c)

we had declared it this way:

void duplicate (int a, int b, int c)
 CALL BY REFERENCE
// more than one returning value
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
void prevnext (int x, int& prev, int& next)
{
prev = x-1;
next = x+1;
}
int main ()
{
int x=100, y, z;
prevnext (x, y, z);
cout << "Previous=" << y << ", Next=" << z;
return 0;
}
CALLING FUNCTION WITH
ARRAYS
Arrays as parameters
At some moment we may need to pass an array
to a function as a parameter. In C++ it is not possible
to pass a complete block of memory by value as a
parameter to a function, but we are allowed to pass
its address. In practice this has almost the same
effect and it is a much faster and more efficient
operation.
In order to accept arrays as parameters the only
thing that we have to do when declaring the function
is to specify in its parameters the element type of the
array, an identifier and a pair of void brackets []. For
example, the following function:
CALLING FUNCTION WITH
ARRAYS
void procedure (int arg[])

accepts a parameter of type "array of

int" called arg. In order to pass to this
function an array declared as:
CALLING FUNCTION WITH
ARRAYS
int myarray [40];
it would be enough to write a call like
this:.
procedure (myarray);
 CALLING FUNCTION WITH
ARRAYS
// arrays as parameters
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
void printarray (int arg[], int length) {
for (int n=0; n<length; n++)
cout << arg[n] << " ";
cout << "\n";
}
int main ()
{
int firstarray[] = {5, 10, 15};
int secondarray[] = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10};
printarray (firstarray,3);
printarray (secondarray,5);
return 0;
}
CALLING FUNCTION WITH
ARRAYS
As you can see, the first parameter (int arg[]) accepts any array
whose elements are of type int, whatever its length. For that
reason we have included a second parameter that tells the
function the length of each array that we pass to it as its first
parameter. This allows the for loop that prints out the array to
know the range to iterate in the passed array without going out of
range.

In a function declaration it is also possible to include

multidimensional arrays. The format for a tridimensional array
parameter is:
base_type[][depth][depth]
for example, a function with a multidimensional array as argument
could be:
void procedure (int myarray[][3][4])
 CALLING FUNCTION WITH
ARRAYS
First Way void display (int a[10])
#include <iostream.h> {
for (i=0;i<10;i++)
void main()
cout<<\n<<a[i];
{
}
int age[10];
cout<<enter the elements; See receiving parameter has
for(i=0;i<n;i++) been declared with its size
cin>>age[i];
display(age);
} See for passing array, only its name (age)
is passed as an argument
 CALLING FUNCTION WITH
ARRAYS
Second way void display (int a[ ] )
#include <iostream.h> {
for (i=0;i<10;i++)
void main()
cout<<\n<<a[i];
{
}
int age[10];
cout<<enter the elements; See receiving parameter has
for(i=0;i<n;i++) been declared without specifying
its size
cin>>age[i];
display(age);
} See for passing array, only its name (age)
is passed as an argument
 CALLING FUNCTION WITH
ARRAYS
Third way void display (int *a )
#include <iostream.h> {
for (i=0;i<10;i++)
void main()
cout<<\n<<a[i];
{
}
int age[10];
cout<<enter the elements; See receiving parameter has
for(i=0;i<n;i++) been declared as pointer of same
base type
cin>>age[i];
display(age);
} See for passing array, only its name (age)
is passed as an argument
 RECURSION
Recursivity is the property that functions have to
be called by themselves. It is useful for many
tasks, like sorting or calculate the factorial of
numbers. For example, to obtain the factorial of a
number (n!) the mathematical formula would be:
n! = n * (n-1) * (n-2) * (n-3) ... * 1

more concretely, 5! (factorial of 5) would be:

5! = 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 * 1 = 120

and a recursive function to calculate this in C++

could be:
 RECURSION
// factorial calculator
#include <iostream>
long factorial (long a)
{
if (a > 1)
return (a * factorial (a-1));
else
return (1);
}
int main ()
{
long number;
cout << "Please type a number: ";
cin >> number;
cout << number << "! = " << factorial (number);
return 0;
}
 RECURSION
Notice how in function factorial we
included a call to itself, but only if the
argument passed was greater than 1,
since otherwise the function would
perform an infinite recursive loop in which
once it arrived to 0 it would continue
multiplying by all the negative numbers
(probably provoking a stack overflow error
on runtime).
This function has a limitation because of
the data type we used in its design (long)
for more simplicity. The results given will
not be valid for values much greater than
10! or 15!, depending on the system you
 RETURNING FROM A
FUNCTION
As invoking a function is
important, returning from a function
is equally important as it not only
terminates the functions execution
but also passes the control back to
the calling function.
THE RETURN STATEMENT

The return statement is useful in

two ways. First an immediate exit
from the function is caused as soon
as the return statement is
encountered and the control is
passes back to statement following
the called function in the calling
code. The general format of return
statement is ,
return(value);
SCOPE OF VARIABLE
The scope of variables declared within a
function or any other inner block is only their
own function or their own block and cannot be
used outside of them. For example, in the
previous example it would have been
impossible to use the variables a, b or r directly
in function main since they were variables local
to function addition. Also, it would have been
impossible to use the variable z directly within
function addition, since this was a variable local
to the function main.
 SCOPE OF VARIABLE
Therefore, the scope of local variables is
limited to the same block level in which
they are declared. Nevertheless, we also
have the possibility to declare global
variables; These are visible from any point
of the code, inside and outside all
functions. In order to declare global
variables you simply have to declare the
variable outside any function or block;
that means, directly in the body of the
program.
SCOPE OF VARIABLE
 INLINE FUNCTION
The inline specifier indicates the compiler that inline substitution is
preferred to the usual function call mechanism for a specific function. This
does not change the behavior of a function itself, but is used to suggest to
the compiler that the code generated by the function body is inserted at
each point the function is called, instead of being inserted only once and
perform a regular call to it, which generally involves some additional
overhead in running time.

The format for its declaration is:

inline type name ( arguments ... )

{
Statements
}

and the call is just like the call to any other function. You do not have to
include the inline keyword when calling the function, only in its declaration.

Most compilers already optimize code to generate inline functions when it is

more convenient. This specifier only indicates the compiler that inline is
preferred for this function.
 STRUCTURES
In C++ language, custom data types can be
created to meet users requirements in 5 ways:
class, structure, union, enumeration and typedef.

Structures are one of the 2 important building

blocks in the understanding of classes and
objects. A structure is a collection of data and
functions. In other words, we can say, a structure
plus related functions make a class. Technically
,there is no difference between a structure and a
class. In fact,a structure is a class declared with
keyword struct and by default, all members are
public in a structure whereas all members are
private by default in the class.
 STRUCTURES
Sometimes, some logically related elements need
to be treated under one unit. For instance, the
elements storing a students information (e.g.,
rollno, name, class, marks, grade) need t be
processed together under one roof. Similarly,
elements keeping a dates information (e.g., day,
month, and year) need to be processed together.
To handle and serve to such situation, C++ offers
structures.
Thus it can be said that ,
A C style structures is a collection of variables
referenced under one name.
 STRUCTURES
The following code fragment
shows how to define a structure (say
date). The keyword struct tells the
compiler that a structure is being
defined.
struct date { short day;
short month;
short year;};
 STRUCTURES
In the above definition, the date is a structure tag and it identifies this
particular data structure and its type specifier. Also remember, at this point of
time (i.e., after the above definition), no structure variable has been declared,
that is , no memory space has bee reserved. Only the form of the data has
been defined. To declare a structure variable having the data form as defined
by date, we will write

Date joining_date;
This declares a structure variable joining_date of type date. Thus, the
complete structure definition is as follows:
struct date
{
short day ;
short month;
short year;
};
Date joining _date ;
Now, the structure joining date will be having its elements as day month and
year. The c++ compiler automatically allocates sufficient memory to
accommodate all of the element variable that make up a structure variable.
 STRUCTURES
Technically ,there is no difference
between a structure and a class. In
fact, a structure is a class declared
with keyword struct and by default,
all members are public in a structure
whereas all members are private by
default in the class.
 STRUCTURE

In simple terms structure can

be defined as,
It is a collection of variables
referenced under one name.
 REFERENCING
STRUCTURE ELEMENTS
The Structure variable name is
followed by a period (.) and the element
name references to that individual
structure element.
The syntax of accessing structure
element is,
structure-name.element-name
 REFERENCING
STRUCTURE ELEMENTS
The structure members are treated like
other variables. Therefore , to print the year
of joining date, we can write,
cout<<joining_date.year;
In the same fashion to read the members
of the structure we can write,
cout<<joining_date.day>>joining_date.month;
cout<<joining_date.year;
 NESTED STRUCTURES
A structure can be nested inside another.
Following code fragment illustrates it;
struct addr
{
int houseno;
char area[26];
char city[26];
char state[26];
};
struct emp
{
int empno;
char name[26]; See the address is structure
char desig[16]; variable itself and is member
addr address; of another structure
float basic;
}worker;
 ACCESSING NESTED
STRUCTURE MEMBERS
The members of the structures are
accessed using dot operator. To access
the city member of address structure
which is an element of another structure
worker we shall write
worker.address.city
To initialize houseno member of
address structure, element of worker
structure, we can write as follows,
worker.address.houseno=1694
 ARRAYS OF STRUCTURE
Since array can contain similar elements the
combination having structures within an array is
an array of structure
To declare the array of structure, you must
first define a structure and then array variable of
that type. For instance, to store addresses of 100
members of council, you need to create an
array
addr mem_addr[100];
This creates 100 sets of variables that are
organised as defined in the structure.
To access we can write,
cout<<mem_addr[7].houseno;
This statement is to print house no position of 8
 ARRAYS WITHIN
STRUCTURE
A structure can have an array as one of its elements.
For example,
struct student
{
int rollno;
char name[20];
float marks[5];
};
student learning;
The above declared structure variable learner is of structure type
student that contains an element which is an array of 5 floats to
store marks of student 5 different subjects
To reference marks of 3rd subject of structure learner, we shall
write,
learner.marks[2]
PASSING STRUCTURES TO
FUNCTIONS
Structures can be passed to a functions
by value as well as by reference method.
In Call By Value, the called function
copies the passed structure then remains
unaffected.
In Call By Reference, the called function
declares a reference for the passed structure
and refers to the original structure elements
through its reference.
 PROGRAM
#include <iostream.h>
struct emp
{
int empno;
char name[25];
double salary;
};
void reademp(Emp &e)
{
cout <<Enter Employee No; cin>>e.empno;
cout<<Enter the Employee Name; cin>>e.name;
cout<<Enter the salary ; cin>>e.salary;
}
 PROGRAM (contd)
void showemp(Emp e)
{
cout<<Employee Details;
cout<<Employee Number<<e.empno;
cout<<Name<<e.name;
cout<<Salary <<e.salary;
}
void main()
{
emp e1;
reademp(e1);
showemp(e1);
}
THANK
YOU