METAL CASTING PROCESSES

Sand Casting
Other Expendable Mold Casting Processes
Permanent Mold Casting Processes
Foundry Practice
Casting Quality
Metals for Casting
Product Design Considerations
 Two Categories of Metal Casting
Processes
1. Expendable mold processes - mold is sacrificed to
remove part
Advantage: more complex shapes possible
Disadvantage: production rates often limited by
time to make mold rather than casting itself
2. Permanent mold processes - mold is made of metal
and can be used to make many castings
Advantage: higher production rates
Disadvantage: geometries limited by need to
open mold
Expendable mold processes:
Sand casting
Investment casting
Shell molding
Vacuum casting
Plaster and ceramic mold casting

Permanent mold processes:

Pressure die casting
Squeeze casting
Centrifugal casting
Continuous casting
 Overview of Sand Casting

Most widely used casting process, accounting for a

significant majority of total tonnage cast
Nearly all alloys can be sand casted, including metals
with high melting temperatures, such as steel, nickel,
and titanium
Parts ranging in size from small to very large
Production quantities from one to millions
Figure 3.1 - A large sand casting weighing over 680 kg \ for an air
compressor frame
(courtesy Elkhart Foundry, photo by Paragon Inc , Elkhart, Indiana)
 Steps in Sand Casting

1. Pour molten metal into sand mold

2. Allow metal to solidify
3. Break up the mold to remove casting
4. Clean and inspect casting
5. Heat treatment of casting is sometimes required to
improve metallurgical properties
Fig.3 Terminology of the Sand Casting
 Making the Sand Mold

The cavity in the sand mold is formed by packing

sand around a pattern, then separating the mold into
two halves and removing the pattern
The mold must also contain gating and riser system
If casting is to have internal surfaces, a core must be
included in mold
A new sand mold must be made for each part
produced
Figure 3.2 - Steps in the production sequence in sand casting
The steps include not only the casting operation but also
pattern-making and mold-making
 The Pattern

A full-sized model of the part, slightly enlarged to

account for shrinkage and machining allowances in
the casting
Pattern materials:
Wood - common material because it is easy to
work, but it warps
Metal - more expensive to make, but lasts much
longer
Plastic - compromise between wood and metal
Figure 3.3 - Types of patterns used in sand casting:
(a) solid pattern
(b) split pattern
(c) match-plate pattern
(d) cope and drag pattern
 Core

Full-scale model of interior surfaces of part

It is inserted into the mold cavity prior to pouring
The molten metal flows and solidifies between the
mold cavity and the core to form the casting's
external and internal surfaces
May require supports to hold it in position in the mold
cavity during pouring, called chaplets
 Figure 3.4 - Core held in place in the mold cavity by
chaplets
(b) possible chaplet design
(c) casting with internal cavity
 Desirable Mold Properties and
Characteristics
Strength - to maintain shape and resist erosion
Permeability - to allow hot air and gases to pass
through voids in sand
Thermal stability - to resist cracking on contact with
molten metal
Collapsibility - ability to give way and allow casting to
shrink without cracking the casting
Reusability - can sand from broken mold be reused to
make other molds?
 Foundry Sands
Silica (SiO2) or silica mixed with other minerals
Good refractory properties - capacity to endure high
temperatures
Small grain size yields better surface finish on the
cast part
Large grain size is more permeable, to allow escape
of gases during pouring
Irregular grain shapes tend to strengthen molds due
to interlocking, compared to round grains
Disadvantage: interlocking tends to reduce
permeability
 Binders Used with Foundry Sands

Sand is held together by a mixture of water and

bonding clay
Typical mix: 90% sand, 3% water, and 7%
clay
Other bonding agents also used in sand molds:
Organic resins (e g , phenolic resins)
Inorganic binders (e g , sodium silicate and
phosphate)
Additives are sometimes combined with the mixture
to enhance strength and/or permeability
 Types of Sand Mold

Green-sand molds - mixture of sand, clay, and water;

Green" means mold contains moisture at time of
pouring
Dry-sand mold - organic binders rather than clay and
mold is baked to improve strength
Skin-dried mold - drying mold cavity surface of a
green-sand mold to a depth of 10 to 25 mm, using
torches or heating lamps
 Buoyancy in Sand Casting Operation

During pouring, buoyancy of the molten metal tends

to displace the core
Core displacement can cause casting to be defective
Force tending to lift core = weight of displaced liquid
less the weight of core itself
Fb = Wm - Wc
where Fb = buoyancy force; Wm = weight of molten
metal displaced; and Wc = weight of core
 Other Expendable Mold
Casting Processes
Shell Molding
Vacuum Molding
Expanded Polystyrene Process
Investment Casting
Plaster Mold and Ceramic Mold Casting
 Shell Molding

Casting process in which the mold is a thin shell of sand

held together by thermosetting resin binder
Developed in Germany during early 1940s
Figure - Steps in shell-molding: (1) a match-plate or
cope-and-drag metal pattern is heated and placed over
a box containing sand mixed with thermosetting resin
Figure - Steps in shell-molding: (2) box is inverted so that sand
and resin fall onto the hot pattern, causing a layer of the
mixture to partially cure on the surface to form a hard shell
Figure - Steps in shell-molding: (3) box is repositioned so
that loose uncured particles drop away
Figure - Steps in shell-molding:
(4) sand shell is heated in oven for several minutes to complete curing
(5) shell mold is stripped from the pattern
Figure - Steps in shell-molding:
(6) two halves of the shell mold are assembled, supported by sand
or metal shot in a box, and pouring is accomplished
(7) the finished casting with sprue removed
 Advantages and Disadvantages
of Shell Molding
Advantages:
Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of
molten metal and better surface finish on casting
Good dimensional accuracy
Machining often not required
Mold collapsibility usually avoids cracks in
casting
Can be mechanized for mass production
Disadvantages:
More expensive metal pattern
Difficult to justify for small quantities
 Vacuum Molding

Uses sand mold held together by vacuum pressure

rather than by a chemical binder
The term "vacuum" refers to mold making rather than
casting operation itself
Developed in Japan around 1970
 Advantages and Disadvantages of
Vacuum Molding
Advantages:
Easy recovery of the sand, since binders not used
Sand does not require mechanical reconditioning
normally done when binders are used
Since no water is mixed with sand,
moisture-related defects are absent
Disadvantages:
Slow process
Not readily adaptable to
mechanization
 Expanded Polystyrene Process

Uses a mold of sand packed around a polystyrene foam

pattern which vaporizes when molten metal is
poured into mold
Other names: lost-foam process, lost pattern process,
evaporative-foam process, and full-mold process
Polystyrene foam pattern includes sprue, risers,
gating system, and internal cores (if needed)
Mold does not have to be opened into cope and drag
sections
Figure - Expanded polystyrene casting process:
(1) pattern of polystyrene is coated with refractory compound
Figure - Expanded polystyrene casting process:
(2) foam pattern is placed in mold box, and sand is
compacted around the pattern
Figure - Expanded polystyrene casting process:
(3) molten metal is poured into the portion of the pattern that forms
the pouring cup and sprue. As the metal enters the mold, the
polystyrene foam is vaporized ahead of the advancing liquid,
thus allowing the resulting mold cavity to be filled.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of
Expanded Polystyrene Process
Advantages:
Pattern need not be removed from the mold
Simplifies and expedites mold-making, since two
mold halves (cope and drag) are not required as in
a conventional green-sand mold
Disadvantages:
A new pattern is needed for every casting
Economic justification of the process is highly
dependent on cost of producing patterns
 Applications of
Expanded Polystyrene Process
Mass production of castings for automobile engines
Automated and integrated manufacturing systems
are used to
Mold the polystyrene foam patterns and then
Feed them to the downstream casting
operation
 Investment Casting (Lost Wax Process)

A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory

material to make mold, after which wax is melted
away prior to pouring molten metal
"Investment" comes from one of the less familiar
definitions of "invest" - "to cover completely," which
refers to coating of refractory material around wax
pattern
It is a precision casting process - capable of castings
of high accuracy and intricate detail
Figure - Steps in investment casting:
(1) wax patterns are produced
(2) several patterns are attached to a sprue to form a pattern tree
Figure - Steps in investment casting:
(3) the pattern tree is coated with a thin layer of refractory material
(4) the full mold is formed by covering the coated tree with sufficient
refractory material to make it rigid

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
Figure - Steps in investment casting:
(5) the mold is held in an inverted position and heated to melt the
wax and permit it to drip out of the cavity

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Figure 11.8 - Steps in investment
casting:
(6) the mold is preheated to a
high temperature, which
ensures that all contaminants
are eliminated from the
mold; it also permits the
liquid metal to flow more
easily into the detailed
cavity; the molten metal is
poured; it solidifies

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Figure - Steps in investment casting:
(7) the mold is broken away from the finished casting -
parts are separated from the sprue

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 Advantages and Disadvantages of
Investment Casting
Advantages:
Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast
Close dimensional control and good surface finish
Wax can usually be recovered for reuse
Additional machining is not normally required - this
is a net shape process
Disadvantages
Many processing steps are required
Relatively expensive process

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Figure - A one-piece compressor stator with 108 separate
airfoils made by investment casting (courtesy Howmet Corp )

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 Plaster Mold Casting

Similar to sand casting except mold is made of plaster

of Paris (gypsum - CaSO4-2H2O)
In mold-making, plaster and water mixture is poured
over plastic or metal pattern and allowed to set
Wood patterns not generally used due to extended
contact with water
Plaster mixture readily flows around pattern,
capturing its fine details and good surface finish

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Advantages and Disadvantages of
Plaster Mold Casting
Advantages:
Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
Capability to make thin cross-sections in casting
Disadvantages:
Moisture in plaster mold causes problems:
Mold must be baked to remove moisture
Mold strength is lost when is over-baked, yet
moisture content can cause defects in product
Plaster molds cannot stand high temperatures, so
limited to lower melting point alloys

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Ceramic Mold Casting

Similar to plaster mold casting except that mold is made

of refractory ceramic materials that can withstand
higher temperatures than plaster
Ceramic molding can be used to cast steels, cast
irons, and other high-temperature alloys
Applications similar to those of plaster mold casting
except for the metals cast
Advantages (good accuracy and finish) also similar

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Permanent Mold Casting Processes

Economic disadvantage of expendable mold casting:

a new mold is required for every casting
In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused many
times
The processes include:
Basic permanent mold casting
Die casting
Centrifugal casting

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 The Basic Permanent Mold Process

Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections

designed for easy, precise opening and closing
Molds used for casting lower melting point alloys are
commonly made of steel or cast iron
Molds used for casting steel must be made of
refractory material, due to the very high pouring
temperatures

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Figure - Steps in permanent mold casting:
(1) mold is preheated and coated

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Figure - Steps in permanent mold casting:
(2) cores (if used) are inserted and mold is closed

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Figure 11.10 - Steps in permanent mold casting:
(3) molten metal is poured into the mold

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 Advantages and Limitations of
Permanent Mold Casting
Advantages:
Good dimensional control and surface finish
More rapid solidification caused by the cold metal
mold results in a finer grain structure, so
stronger castings are produced
Limitations:
Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
Simple part geometries compared to sand casting
because of the need to open the mold
High cost of mold

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 Applications of Permanent Mold Casting

Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to high

volume production and can be automated accordingly
Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump bodies, and
certain castings for aircraft and missiles
Metals commonly cast: aluminum, magnesium,
copper-base alloys, and cast iron

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Die Casting

A permanent mold casting process in which molten

metal is injected into mold cavity under high pressure
Pressure is maintained during solidification, then
mold is opened and part is removed
Molds in this casting operation are called dies; hence
the name die casting
Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity is
what distinguishes this from other permanent mold
processes

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 Die Casting Machines

Designed to hold and accurately close two mold

halves and keep them closed while liquid metal is
forced into cavity
Two main types:
1. Hot-chamber machine
2. Cold-chamber machine

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects liquid

metal under high pressure into the die
High production rates - 500 parts per hour not
uncommon
Applications limited to low melting-point metals that
do not chemically attack plunger and other
mechanical components
Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium

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Figure 11.13 - Cycle in hot-chamber casting:
(1) with die closed and plunger withdrawn, molten metal flows into
the chamber

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Figure 11.13 - Cycle in hot-chamber casting:
(2) plunger forces metal in chamber to flow into die,
maintaining pressure during cooling and solidification

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Cold-Chamber Die Casting Machine

Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber from

external melting container, and a piston injects metal
under high pressure into die cavity
High production but not usually as fast as
hot-chamber machines because of pouring step
Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and magnesium
alloys
Advantages of hot-chamber process favor its use on
low melting-point alloys (zinc, tin, lead)

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Figure 11.14 - Cycle in cold-chamber casting:
(1) with die closed and ram withdrawn, molten
metal is poured into the chamber

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
Figure 11.14 - Cycle in cold-chamber casting:
(2) ram forces metal to flow into die, maintaining pressure during
cooling and solidification

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 Molds for Die Casting

Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or maraging

steel
Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory qualities)
used to die cast steel and cast iron
Ejector pins required to remove part from die when it
opens
Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to prevent
sticking

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Advantages and Limitations of
Die Casting
Advantages:
Economical for large production quantities
Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
Thin sections are possible
Rapid cooling provides small grain size and good
strength to casting
Disadvantages:
Generally limited to metals with low metal points
Part geometry must allow removal from die
cavity

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Centrifugal Casting

A group of casting processes in which the mold is

rotated at high speed so centrifugal force distributes
molten metal to outer regions of die cavity
The group includes:
True centrifugal casting
Semicentrifugal casting
Centrifuge casting

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 True Centrifugal Casting

Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to produce a

tubular part
In some operations, mold rotation commences after
pouring rather than before
Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings
Outside shape of casting can be round, octagonal,
hexagonal, etc , but inside shape is (theoretically)
perfectly round, due to radially symmetric forces

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Figure 11.15 - Setup for true centrifugal casting

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Semicentrifugal Casting

Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings

rather than tubular parts
Molds are designed with risers at center to supply
feed metal
Density of metal in final casting is greater in outer
sections than at center of rotation
Often used on parts in which center of casting is
machined away, thus eliminating the portion where
quality is lowest
Examples: wheels and pulleys

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Centrifuge Casting

Mold is designed with part cavities located away from

axis of rotation, so that molten metal poured into
mold is distributed to these cavities by centrifugal
force
Used for smaller parts
Radial symmetry of part is not required as in other
centrifugal casting methods

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Furnaces for Casting Processes

Furnaces most commonly used in foundries:

Cupolas
Direct fuel-fired furnaces
Crucible furnaces
Electric-arc furnaces
Induction furnaces

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 Cupolas

Vertical cylindrical furnace equipped with tapping spout

near base
Used only for cast irons, and although other furnaces
are also used, largest tonnage of cast iron is melted
in cupolas
The "charge," consisting of iron, coke, flux, and
possible alloying elements, is loaded through a
charging door located less than halfway up height of
cupola

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Direct Fuel-Fired Furnaces

Small open-hearth in which charge is heated by natural

gas fuel burners located on side of furnace
Furnace roof assists heating action by reflecting
flame down against charge
At bottom of hearth is a tap hole to release molten
metal
Generally used for nonferrous metals such as
copper-base alloys and aluminum

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 Crucible Furnaces

Metal is melted without direct contact with burning fuel

mixture
Sometimes called indirect fuel-fired furnaces
Container (crucible) is made of refractory material or
high-temperature steel alloy
Used for nonferrous metals such as bronze, brass,
and alloys of zinc and aluminum
Three types used in foundries: (a) lift-out type, (b)
stationary, (c) tilting

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Figure 11.19 - Three types of crucible furnaces:
(a) lift-out crucible,
(b) stationary pot, from which molten metal must be ladled, and
(c) tilting-pot furnace

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Electric-Arc Furnaces

Charge is melted by heat generated from an electric arc

High power consumption, but electric-arc furnaces
can be designed for high melting capacity
Used primarily for melting steel

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 Figure 6.9 - Electric arc furnace for steelmaking

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Induction Furnaces

Uses alternating current passing through a coil to

develop magnetic field in metal
Induced current causes rapid heating and
melting
Electromagnetic force field also causes mixing action
in liquid metal
Since metal does not contact heating elements, the
environment can be closely controlled, which results
in molten metals of high quality and purity
Melting steel, cast iron, and aluminum alloys are
common applications in foundry work
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 Figure 11.20 - Induction furnace

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 Ladles
Moving molten metal from melting furnace to mold is
sometimes done using crucibles
More often, transfer is accomplished by ladles

Figure 11.21 - Two common types of ladles: (a) crane ladle, and (b)
two-man ladle

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 Additional Steps After Solidification

Trimming
Removing the core
Surface cleaning
Inspection
Repair, if required
Heat treatment

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 Trimming

Removal of sprues, runners, risers, parting-line flash,

fins, chaplets, and any other excess metal from the
cast part
For brittle casting alloys and when cross-sections are
relatively small, appendages can be broken off
Otherwise, hammering, shearing, hack-sawing,
band-sawing, abrasive wheel cutting, or various torch
cutting methods are used

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Removing the Core

If cores have been used, they must be removed

Most cores are bonded, and they often fall out of
casting as the binder deteriorates
In some cases, they are removed by shaking casting,
either manually or mechanically
In rare cases, cores are removed by chemically
dissolving bonding agent
Solid cores must be hammered or pressed out

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Surface Cleaning

Removal of sand from casting surface and otherwise

enhancing appearance of surface
Cleaning methods: tumbling, air-blasting with coarse
sand grit or metal shot, wire brushing, buffing, and
chemical pickling
Surface cleaning is most important for sand casting,
whereas in many permanent mold processes, this
step can be avoided
Defects are possible in casting, and inspection is
needed to detect their presence

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Heat Treatment

Castings are often heat treated to enhance properties

Reasons for heat treating a casting:
For subsequent processing operations such as
machining
To bring out the desired properties for the
application of the part in service

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Casting Quality

There are numerous opportunities for things to go

wrong in a casting operation, resulting in quality
defects in the product
The defects can be classified as follows:
Defects common to all casting processes
Defects related to sand casting process

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Misrun
A casting that has solidified
before completely filling
mold cavity

Figure 11.22 - Some common defects in castings: (a) misrun

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 Cold Shut
Two portions of metal flow
together but there is a lack of
fusion due to premature freezing

Figure 11.22 - Some common defects in castings: (b) cold shut

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Cold Shot
Metal splatters during pouring
and solid globules form and
become entrapped in casting

Figure 11.22 - Some common defects in castings: (c) cold shot

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Shrinkage Cavity
Depression in surface or
internal void caused by
solidification shrinkage that
restricts amount of molten
metal available in last region to
freeze

Figure 11.22 - Some common defects in castings: (d) shrinkage cavity

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Sand Blow
Balloon-shaped gas cavity
caused by release of mold
gases during pouring

Figure 11.23 - Common defects in sand castings: (a) sand blow

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Pin Holes
Formation of many small
gas cavities at or slightly
below surface of casting

Figure 11.23 - Common defects in sand castings: (b) pin holes

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Penetration
When fluidity of liquid metal is
high, it may penetrate into sand
mold or sand core, causing casting
surface to consist of a mixture of
sand grains and metal

Figure 11.23 - Common defects in sand castings: (e) penetration

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Mold Shift
A step in cast product at parting
line caused by sidewise relative
displacement of cope and drag

Figure 11.23 - Common defects in sand castings: (f) mold shift

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Foundry Inspection Methods

Visual inspection to detect obvious defects such as

misruns, cold shuts, and severe surface flaws
Dimensional measurements to insure that tolerances
have been met
Metallurgical, chemical, physical, and other tests
concerned with quality of cast metal

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Metals for Casting

Most commercial castings are made of alloys rather

than pure metals
Alloys are generally easier to cast, and properties
of product are better
Casting alloys can be classified as:
Ferrous
Nonferrous

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Ferrous Casting Alloys: Cast Iron

Most important of all casting alloys

Tonnage of cast iron castings is several times that of
all other metals combined
Several types: (1) gray cast iron, (2) nodular iron, (3)
white cast iron, (4) malleable iron, and (5) alloy cast
irons
Typical pouring temperatures 1400C (2500F),
depending on composition

2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e
 Ferrous Casting Alloys: Steel

The mechanical properties of steel make it an

attractive engineering material
The capability to create complex geometries makes
casting an attractive shaping process
Difficulties faced by the foundry working with steel:
Pouring temperature of steel is higher than for
most other casting metals 1650C (3000F)
At these temperatures, steel readily oxidizes, so
molten metal must be isolated from air
Molten steel has relatively poor fluidity
 Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Aluminum

Generally considered to be very castable

Pouring temperatures low melting temperature of
aluminum Tm = 660C (1220F)
Properties:
Light weight
Range of strength properties by heat treatment
Ease of machining
Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Copper Alloys

Includes bronze, brass, and aluminum bronze

Properties:
Corrosion resistance
Attractive appearance
Good bearing qualities
Limitation: high cost of copper
Applications: pipe fittings, marine propeller blades,
pump components, ornamental jewelry
 Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Zinc Alloys

Highly castable, commonly used in die casting

Low melting point melting point of zinc Tm = 419C
(786F)
Good fluidity for ease of casting
Properties:
Low creep strength, so castings cannot be
subjected to prolonged high stresses
 Product Design Considerations:
Geometric Simplicity
Although casting can be used to produce complex
part geometries, simplifying the part design will
improve castability
Avoiding unnecessary complexities:
Simplifies mold-making
Reduces the need for cores
Improves the strength of the casting
 Product Design Considerations:
Corners
Sharp corners and angles should be avoided, since
they are sources of stress concentrations and may
cause hot tearing and cracks
Generous fillets should be designed on inside
corners and sharp edges should be blended
 Product Design Considerations:
Draft Guidelines
In expendable mold casting, purpose of draft is to
facilitate removal of pattern from mold (1 for sand
casting)
In permanent mold casting, purpose is to aid in
removal of the part from the mold (2 to 3 for
permanent mold processes)
Similar tapers should be allowed if solid cores are
used
 Minor changes in part design can reduce need for
coring

Figure 11.25 Design change to eliminate the need for using a core:
(a) original design, and (b) redesign
 Product Design Considerations:
Dimensional Tolerances and Surface Finish

Significant differences in dimensional accuracies and

finishes can be achieved in castings, depending on
process:
Poor dimensional accuracies and finish for sand
casting
Good dimensional accuracies and finish for die
casting and investment casting
Many factors influence the degree to which any particular cast piece
differs in dimensions from those specified
These include differences in methods, equipment, metal, and sand
from foundry to foundry or from lot to lot.
Differences in mold hardness
pattern inaccuracies
shrinkage variations
Internal stresses, and many more

RECOMDATION FOR CASTING TOLERANCE:

It is best not to specify tolerances any tighter than absolutely
necessary.
 When castings are dimensioned in MM,
the general practice is to specify
noncritical or nominal dimensions in
fractions of inches or one- or two-place
decimals.

Critical dimensions are usually given as

three-place decimals with a tolerance
range.
Recommended tolerances for sand casting
LINEAR TOLERANCES ACROSS THE
PARTING LINE

These tolerances must be provided in addition to the linear

dimensional tolerances where a dimension is affected by
the parting line. They apply to dimensions both parallel and
perpendicular to the parting line.
LINEAR TOLERANCES AFFECTED BY
MOVEMENTS

These tolerances must be provided in addition to

the linear dimensional tolerances where a core or
moving die part affects a dimension
FLATNESS TOLERANCES

The flatness of a casting can be measured by supporting the surface

in question on three widely separated points to establish a datum and
measuring the deviation from that plane by the use of feeler gauges.

The flatness tolerance is the total deviation permitted from the datum
and consists of the distance between two parallel planes within which
the entire surface so tolerated must lie.
 Product Design Considerations:
Machining Allowances
Almost all sand castings must be machined to
achieve the required dimensions and part features
Additional material, called the machining allowance,
must be left on the casting in those surfaces where
machining is necessary
Typical machining allowances for sand castings are
around 1.5 and 3 mm (1/16 and 1/4 in)