Water

Chemistry U2 M2
Paige Chin, Tyler Neath, Ciara Neita, Ashleigh
Alexander
What is water?
Water is a small molecule made up of three elements (implied- 1
hydrogen molecule-2H and Oxygen molecule-1O) held together by
covalent bonds.

Water however forms bonds between other water molecules through

hydrogen bonding due to the distribution of charge between the oxygen
and hydrogen atoms. This makes the oxygen slightly electronegative
and attracts the hydrogen on other molecules of water creating the
cohesion effect.
What is the water cycle?
The water cycle is the process by which water circulates between the
earth's oceans, atmosphere, and land, involving precipitation such as
rain and snow, drainage in streams and rivers, and return to the
atmosphere by evaporation and transpiration.
Elements of the Water Cycle
Evaporation- is the process by which a liquid
turns to vapour or gas

Condensation- is the cooling of a vapour to

form its liquid state

Precipitation- is the liquid formed from condensation which falls to the

earth

Transpiration- is the process by which plants lose water through their

leaves to the atmosphere.
Importance of the water cycle
-The water cycle is an important process that recycles water and
nutrients.

-It brings fresh water to people, animals and plants all around the world.
The water cycle begins with the ocean, lakes, ponds and other bodies of
water on earth.
Importance of water cycle (continued)
-Water evaporates from bodies of water, and as the evaporated water
lifts into the sky, it is cooled rapidly and condenses to form clouds.
These clouds travel by wind currents and act as storage compartments.
for water. As they become filled with water, precipitation occurs.

- Once the water reaches the ground in the form of rain, snow, sleet or ice, some
of the water may evaporate back into the air to form clouds, while the rest may
penetrate the soil and become groundwater.

-Groundwater can either return to the atmosphere and form clouds via
transpiration, or it can flow into oceans, rivers, streams and other bodies of
water. The cycle then restarts, with evaporation and transpiration
Importance of the water cycle
(summarized)
Water is the most important molecular component of any ecosystem as
it:

-Allows for growth

-Cycling of nutrients and movement of them

-Dissolves nutrients and other solutes necessary for survival

such as, magnesium, calcium, sodium, etc.

-Allows for homeostasis and other important factors necessary

to life.
We definitely need it :)
Importance of dissolved oxygen on aquatic
life
The dissolved oxygen (DO) in water refers to the oxygen molecules that
are not bonded to any other element. NB: This oxygen is not the oxygen
that is bonded to the hydrogen atoms which make up water!

How does oxygen get dissolved into water?

- Diffusion

- Aeration

- Photosynthesis
Importance of dissolved oxygen on aquatic
life ctd.
Organisms which require oxygen include:

Animals- Aquatic animals such as fish and plankton need oxygen for
respiration.

Microorganisms- When an organic pollutant is introduced to the water

body a natural purification system is implemented. This includes the
action of microorganisms which oxidise the pollutants using dissolved
oxygen.
Factors affecting amount of DO in water
- Temperature: As temperature increases, DO decreases

- Pressure: As pressure decreases, DO decreases

- Salinity: Salt water has less DO than freshwater

- Degree of agitation of the water surface

- Number of organisms removing oxygen from the water

The biological oxygen demand (BOD) of water is the amount of oxygen
used when organic matter is degraded biologically.

An increase in pollutants leads to a higher BOD as the micro-organisms

require more dissolved oxygen to break them down. A body of water
with an increased BOD and no means to quickly replenish oxygen leads
to less oxygen available to other aquatic animals who will eventually die
which can result in eutrophication.
Sources of Water pollution
May involve the entry of unnatural substances or offsetting the
balance of natural substances

Sources can either be direct or indirect.

Classified as either: Municipal, Agricultural and Industrial

Sources of Water Pollution (Contd)
Municipal:

Mainly sewage derived in cases by which it is untreated or poorly

treated

Depletes oxygen content within water bodies

Breeding ground for many disease causing microorganisms such as B

pseudomallei, Salmonella Norovirus

Diseases include Diarrhea, Dysentery, Cholera, Tuberculosis

Fact: Researchers have estimated that each year there are 1.3 to 4.0
million cases of cholera, and 21 000 to 143 000 deaths
worldwide.
Sources of Water Pollution (Contd)
Municipal:

Conventional products used everyday by people are dumped on streets

and roadways. These enter drainage pipes and thus into water bodies.

These include detergents, soft drinks, plastics, cigarettes etc.

Cyanide released from cigarettes and combustion of plastics (improper

waste disposal). When taken in Convulsions, Loss of consciousness, Low
blood pressure, Lung injury. *
Sources of Water Pollution (Contd)
Sources of Water Pollution (Contd)
Agricultural:

Most likely to occur (Proximity)

Common fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides are highly soluble

Easily enter water bodies (leaching)

Effect increased by poor soil structure. *

Sources of Water Pollution (Contd)
Agricultural:

Fertilizers often contain soluble nutrients required for growth

Contain Nitrates and Phosphates

Decreases amount of Oxygen present

Causes Eutrophication *

Causes Methemoglobinemia *
Sources of Water Pollution (Contd)
Sources of Water Pollution (Contd)
Industrial

Involved in improper waste disposal

Toxic by-product chemicals are often dumped within water systems

Proximity increases effect

May include
Nuclear Waste - radioactive poisoning and cancers
Oil Spills - Disrupting underwater ecosystems due to oil
layer films
Sources of Water Pollution (Contd)
Industrial

Lead - Enters environment and water bodies from battery production,

smelting, soldering tools, plumbing equipment

Effects - cognitive deficits, peripheral neuropathy, progressive renal

dysfunction Due to enzyme inhibition

Petroleum residue - from refineries

Effects - Study found that it affects feeding rates of animals such as

crabs.
Sources of Water Pollution (Contd)
Industrial

Mercury - enters as a waster for chlor-alkali industry (electrolysis of

NaCl to produce chlorine and caustic soda). Also from mining and
coal burning

Effects - Impairs nervous system. Acts as an enzymatic inhibitor *

Also impairs functioning of digestive and immune systems, lungs and

kidneys.
Sources of Water Pollution (Contd)
Water Pollution
Methods of Water Purification
Water from natural sources in the environment such as rivers, streams
and springs, is referred to as raw water. Raw water is filled with
contaminants such as micro-organisms and toxic metals making it a
health risk and unfit for domestic use. The goal of water purification is
to remove the contaminants so as to bring the water to an acceptable
standard. There are five major methods:

Distillation

Ion Exchange

Filtration

Chemical Treatment

UV Radiation
Distillation
Water is heated until it evaporates. The vapour is then collected and
condensed.

Most of the contaminants will remain in the distilling vessel, however,

volatile substances of boiling points less than 100C may also
evaporate and be present in the distillate.

Distillation can remove bacteria, sodium chloride, organic compounds

and heavy metals

The apparatus is relatively inexpensive, however the process is slow,

energy consuming and requires close maintenance to ensure the
purity standard.
Distillation

Diagram of typical industrial Diagram of lab distillation of NaCl/Water

distillation tower solution
Ion Exchange
This is a method in which water percolates through a column of
spherical resin beads. The ions present in the water are exchanged for
the ions fixed on the beads. Ion exchange methods include softening,
deionisation and electrode ionisation.

Softening:

Resins are used to remove Ca2+ and Mg2+ from hard water

The resins contain adsorbed Na+ ions for which the Ca2+ are replaced

The resins may be regenerated by washing with concentrated sodium

chloride

Removes ions effectively, but does not remove organic compounds

nor does it remove micro-organisms which may grow rapidly on the
Ion Exchange (Contd)

Diagram showing the Softening Process

Ion Exchange (Contd)
Deionisation:

Involves the removal of dissolved minerals from water

The ion-exchanged resins contain alkali or adsorbed acid

The acidic resin exchanges hydrogen ions for cationic contaminants

The alkali resin exchanges hydroxyl ions for anionic contaminants

The resins may be regenerated by washing with an acid or alkali

Removes ions effectively, but does not remove organic compounds

nor does it remove micro-organism which may even grow rapidly on
the resin
Ion Exchange (Contd)
Electrodeionization:

Water is deionised while the ion-exchange resin is being continuously

regenerated through the passing of an electric current in the system

Electric current splits the water in hydrogen ion and hydroxyl ions
which regenerate the resins

Contaminants migrate through the resin after which they are removed
from the system.

Due to the continuous regeneration, resins will not become exhausted

nor lose efficiency, nor is it necessary to halt the system to
regenerate the resins. Therefore, water of consistent purity is
allowed to be produced.

Unlike softening and deionisation, this method gets inhibits the

Filtration
Filtration is used to remove suspended materials within the water.
Depending on the particle size, different method of filtration will be
used. These methods include:

Screen filters

Sand filters

Carbon filters

Membrane filter
Filtration (Contd)
Screen Filter:

Used mainly to remove large debris from water such as sticks, trash,
leaves and the like

Utilises a screen made from metal, plastic or synthetic fibre that is

closed in a mesh
Filtration (Contd)

Diagram of Screen Filter

Filtration (Contd)
Sand Filters:

Used to remove suspended materials from water using layers of sand

or similar granular substances

As the water moves through the sand, the particles get trapped

Efficiency of this type of filter depends on particle size of the sand,

the ratio of surface area to depth of the filter and the flow rate of
water through the filter

Can be used as a pre-filtration method for membrane filtration

Filtration (Contd)
Slow sand filtration
Filtration (Contd)
Carbon Filters:

Uses fine pieces of charcoal to remove contaminants

Reduces the presence of chlorine, sediments and volatile organic

compounds from water

Charcoal is usually activated to give it a positive charge, allowing

organic materials to migrate to the charcoal surface

Catalyses the conversion of chlorine to chlorides and hydrogen

sulphides to sulphates thereby reducing the undesirable tastes and
odours.

Newer filters can remove sediments and microorganisms as small as

5m, however as organic materials cannot be removed, this method
Filtration (Contd)
Filtration (Contd)
Membrane Filtration (MF):

Isolates discrete colonies of bacteria. Using MF, a 100 mL sample of

water is passed through a 47 mm membrane using a filter funnel
and vacuum system. Any organisms in the sample are concentrated
on the surface of the membrane. The filter is then placed in a petri
dish with nutrient medium. The passage of nutrients through the
filter facilitates the growth of organisms on the upper surface of the
membrane. The discrete colonies that form on the surface of the
membrane can be easily transferred to confirmation media.

-
Filtration contd
Uses of membrane filtration (MF)

by government labs for monitoring drinking water

for microbial monitoring in the pharmaceutical, cosmetics, electronics, and food
and beverage industries. (It used in these industrial labs to monitor the
presence of microorganisms in process waters and final product.)

Advantages
-Allows isolation and enumeration of discrete colonies of bacteria.
-Provides presence or absence information within 24 hours.
-Monitors drinking water in government laboratories.
-Useful for bacterial monitoring in the pharmaceutical, cosmetics,
electronics, and food and beverage industries.
-Allows for removal of bacteriostatic or cidal agents that would not be
removed in Pour Plate, Spread Plate, or MPN techniques.
Chemical Treatment
Chemical treatment involves two main methods: Clarification and
Disinfection

Clarification:

Chemicals to coagulate and flocculate small suspended particles in

the water are used

Common coagulants used are aluminum sulphate, iron (III) sulphate,

and iron (III) chloride are used.

Suspended particles clump together (flocculate) to form larger

particles called floc, which either sink or rise to the surface for easy
removal

Suspended particles may still remain when using this method,

prompting further treatment
Chemical Treatment (Contd)
Chemical Treatment (Contd)
Disinfection:

Typically the last step in water treatment process

Water is treated to chlorine gas, chloromine, sodium hypochlorite,

chlorine dioxide or ozone in order to kill pathogens. Cyst forming
protozoa such as Giardia are resistant to chlorine however.

There is also concern over chlorines reaction with the organic

compounds as they form chlorinated organic products such as
trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs) which are
carcinogenic.

An activated carbon filter can be used to remove excess chlorine and

limited amounts of chlorinated compounds from the water.
Chemical Treatment (Contd)
Disinfection (Contd):

Chlorine dioxide is prefered as it does not produce THMs.

Fluorine and Iodine are not safe for long term treatment. Iodine in
particular has adverse effects on those suffering from thyroid
disease.

Ozone is effective in destroying cyst forming protozoa, unlike chlorine.

There are relatively fewer harmful by-products of ozone as well in

comparison to chlorine.

Ozone also does not leave any residual disinfectant in the water.
Chemical Treatment (Contd)
UV Radiation
UV light is used to kill pathogens and oxidise organic compounds

A radiation of wavelength 254nm is effective in killing bacteria, with

viruses proving to be more of a challenge and cysts and worms
being unaffected.

185nm is most effective in oxidising organic compounds

UV radiation does not leave residual disinfectant in the water

UV Radiation (Contd)
Desalination
Desalination is the removal of salt from water. The main methods used
for this are distillation and reverse osmosis. The results of both methods
are fresh water and concentrated brine.

There are environmental issues surrounding desalination as the brine

ejected in the sea causes the area to be too salty to support life. Also,
the initial removal of water to commence the desalination process often
involves the killing of many organisms
Tests for presence of pollutants
Nitrates

- Add 5 drops of FeSO4 solution to 2mL of water to be tested and mix

the solution

- Pour concentrated sulphuric acid into test tube and let stand for
approximately 2 minutes to form two layers

- The formation of a brown ring between the two layers confirms the
presence of nitrate ions.
Tests for presence of pollutants

Phosphate ions

- Add dilute nitric acid to 2mL of water to be tested

- Add three or four drops of ammonium molybdate

- Mix the solution thoroughly and heat to almost boiling for two
minutes

- Finely divided yellow precipitate confirm presence of phosphate ions

Tests for presence of pollutants
Lead

- Add a few drops of potassium dichromate solution to 2mL of water

sample to be tested

- Formation of yellow precipitate confirms presence of lead

Tests for presence of pollutants
Cyanide

- Add iron (II) sulphate to a sample of water to be tested

- Heat the mixture, cool it and acidify it with mineral acid

- The formation of Prussian blue signifies presence of cyanide

Tests for presence of pollutants
The Turbidity Test

Firstly, turbidity is the amount of solid particles suspended in water and

these particles cause light rays to scatter.

How do we measure tubidity?

- A Nephlometer
The more small particles in the water, the more light will be deflected to
the detector.
END.