Database

Management System
Group 1
Flat-File Versus Database Environments
Computer processing involves two components: data
and instructions (programs).
Conceptually, there are two methods for designing
interface between programs and data:
file-oriented (flat-file) processing: A specific data
file was created for each application [legacy
systems]
data-oriented processing: Create a single data
repository to support numerous applications
[current systems]
Disadvantages of file-oriented processing include
redundant data and programs and varying
formats for storing the redundant data.
 File-Oriented (Flat-File) Environment
User 1(Sales) Data
Transactions
Program 1 A,B,C
User 2 (A/R)
Transactions
Program 2
X,B,Y
User 3 (Payroll)
Transactions
Program 3
L,B,M
Where B is a customer record. Assume Bs address changes. Each user
that works with the B record must modify the address, increasing chance
for error.
 Database Approach
User 1 (Sales) Database
Transactions
Program 1
A,
User 2 (A/R)
D
B,
Transactions B
C,
Program 2 M
X,
S
Y,
User 3 (Payroll)
Transactions L,
Program 3 M

With the database approach, any User could change Bs address - it would be

changed for all users. changes. [Assume all users have authority to change
the
Data Redundancy & Flat-File
Problems
Data Storage - creates excessive storage
costs of paper documents and/or magnetic
form
Data Updating - any changes or
additions must be performed multiple
times (see example of Bs address)
Currency of Information - potential
problem of failing to update all affected
files
Task-Data Dependency - users inability
to obtain additional information as his or
her needs change
Data sharing/centralized database resolves
flat-file problems:
No data redundancy - Data stored only once,
eliminating data redundancy and reducing storage
costs.
Single update - Because data are in only one place,
requires only single update procedure, reducing
time/cost of keeping database current.
Current values - Change to database made by any
(authorized) user yields current data values for all
other (authorized) users.
Task-data independence - As users information
needs expand beyond immediate domain, new needs
can be more easily satisfied than under flat-file
approach
The Database Management System
Three conceptual mode
Hierarchical Model
Network Model
Relational Model

Elements of Database Management System

Users
Database Management System
Data Definition Language
Data Manipulation Language
Query Language
Database Administrator
Database Management System
Features:
Program development
Back up and recovery
Database usage reporting
Database access
Data Definition Language
Internal view

Conceptual view (schema)

User view (sub schema)

DBMS Operation
A user program sends a request for data
to DBMS.
The DBMS analyzes the request by
matching the called data elements
against the user view and the
conceptual view.
The DBMS determines the data structure
parameters from the internal view and
passes them to the operating system,
which performs the actual data retrieval.
Using the appropriate access
method, the operating system
interacts with the disk storage
device to retrieve the data from
the physical database.
The operating system then
stores the data in a main
memory buffer area managed by
the DBMS.
The DBMS transfer the data to
the users work location in main
memory. At this point, the users
program is free to access and
manipulate the data.
When processing is complete.
Steps 4, 5, and 6 are reversed to
restore the processed data to
the database.
Data Manipulation Language
Is the proprietary programming
language that a particular database
model uses to retrieve, process, and
store data
Structured Query Language
SQL is a non-procedural language with many
commands that allow users to input, retrieve, and
modify data easily.
Basic commands:
SELECT get data from a database table
UPDATE change data in a database table
DELETE remove data from a database table
INSERT INTO insert new data in a database
table
Data Dictionary
Describes every data element in the
database
This enables all users to share a
common view of the data resource
and greatly facilitates the analysis of
user needs
Physical Database
is a representation of a data design
which takes into account the facilities
and constraints of a given database
management system.
Relational Database Model
is a digital database whose
organization is based on the
relational model of data, as proposed
by E.F. Codd in 1960. This model
organizes data into one or more
tables (or "relations") of rows and
columns, with a unique key for each
row.
Each row in a table has its own
unique key, rows in a table can be
linked to rows in other tables by
storing the unique key of the row to
which it should be linked (where such
unique key is known as a "foreign
key").
Relational Database
Concepts
Entity, Occurrence, and
Attributes
Entity
anything about which the
organization wishes to capture
data.
Two kinds of entity:
Physical
Conceptual
Entity, Occurrence, and Attributes

Data Model
- is the blueprint for ultimately
creating the physical database.

Entity Relation (ER) Diagram

- graphical representation used
to depict the model.
Data Model using ER Diagram

Custo Buys Produc

mer t
Send
s

Payme
nt
Entity, Occurrence, and Attributes
Occurrence
- is used to describe the number
of instances or records that
pertain to a specific entity.
Attributes
- are the data elements that
define an entity.
Associations and Cardinality
The labeled line connecting two
entities in a data model
describes the nature of the
association between them.
Associations and
Cardinality
Cardinality
- is the degree of association between
two entities.

4 basic forms:
0, 1
1,1
0,M
1,M
Cardinality Notation

Crows foot
Write the cardinal values on
each end of the association line
connecting the two entities
Physical Database Tables
Four characteristics of properly designed tables:
The value of at least one attribute in each
occurrence must be unique, which is the primary
key. Other attributes need not to be unique.
All attribute values in any column must be of the
same class.
Each column in a given table must be uniquely
named. However, different tables may contain
columns with the same name.
Tables must conform to the rules of
normalization.
Linkages Between
Relational Tables

Foreign keys
- physically connect related
tables to achieve the
associations described in the
data model.
Linkages Between Relational Tables
User Views
- the set of data that a particular
user sees.

Two types of views Two kinds of

views:
- Digital - Simple
- Physical - Complex
 Anomalies, Structural
Dependencies, and Data
Normalization
Database Anomalies
First Normal Form (1NF)
Second Normal Form (2NF)
Third Normal Form (3NF)
Three Types of Anomalies
(anomalies are found in Unnormalized tables)

Update Anomaly: Modification on

attribute must be made in each of
rows in which attribute appears.
Insertion Anomaly: New item
cannot be added to table until at
least one entity uses particular
attribute item.
Deletion Anomaly: If attribute item
used by only one entity is deleted, all
information about that attribute item
is lost.
Anomalies can be corrected by
 Normalizing Tables

The database anomalies described

are symptoms of structural
problems within tables called
dependencies.
repeating groups
partial dependencies
transitive dependencies
Normalization Process involves
identifying and removing
structural dependencies from
tables under review.
Linking Normalized
Tables
if 1:1 association, either of tables
primary keys may be foreign key.
if 1:M association, primary key of the
ONE side is embedded as foreign key in
the MANY side.
if M:M (M:N) association, create separate
linking table.
Accountants and Data
Normalization
Accountants and Data Normalization
Data Normalization
Technical matter
Responsibility of systems professionals

Update anomaly generate conflicting and obsolete

database values

Insertion anomaly result in unrecorded transactions

and incomplete audit trails

Deletion anomaly cause the loss of accounting records

and the destruction of audit trails
Accountants and Data Normalization
Accountants
Should have an understanding of
the process and be able to
determine whether a table is
properly normalized
DESIGNING RELATIONAL DATABASES
View Modeling six phases of database
design

1. Identify Entities
2. Construct a data model showing entity
associations
3. Add primary keys and attributes to the model
4. Normalize the data model and add foreign
keys
5. Construct the physical database
6. Prepare the user views.
1. Identify Entities
To pass as valid entities, two
conditions need to be met:

1. An entity must consist two or

more occurrences.

2. An entity must contribute at least

one attribute that is not provided
through other entities.
Purchasing system
1. The purchasing agent reviews the inventory status
report for items that need to be reordered.

2. The agent selects a supplier and prepares online

purchase order.

3. The agents prints a copy of the purchase order.

4. The supplier ships inventory to the company. Upon its

arrival, the receiving clerk inspects the inventory and
prepares an online receiving report. The computer
system automatically updates the inventory records.
2. Construct a Data Model Showing
Entity Associations

Determine the associations

between entities and document
them with and ER diagram.

Associations represent business

rules.
2. Construct a Data Model Showing
Entity Associations

Updates Contains
Inventory

Supplies
0, 0,
M:M M:M
M:M
Supplier Sent
to
1: 0,
M

Receiving Is Purchase
Report associated Order
1: 1
with
Add Primary Keys and Attributes to the
Model
Prepare the user views
normalize tables should support
all required views of system users

user views restrict users from

have access to unauthorized data
Global View Integration
View Integration is combining
the data needs of all users into a
single schema or enterprise-wide
view.
 Database in a Distributed
Environment
Centralized Databases
- remote users send requests via
terminals for data to the central site, which
processes the requests and transmits the
data back to the user.
- the central site performs the functions of
file manager that services the data needs of
the remote users.
 Data Currency in a DDP Environment
- During data processing, account balances pass through a state of
temporary inconsistency, in which their values are incorrectly stated.

- To Illustrate, consider the computer logic for recording the credit sale of
P2,000 to customer James

INSTRUCTION DATABASE VALUES

AR-Jones AR-Control
START
1. Read AR-Sub account (Jones) 1,500
2. Read AR-Control account 10,000
3. Write AR-Sub account (Jones) +2,000 3,500
4. Write AR-Control account +2,000 12,000
END
 Data Lockup
- To achieve data currency, simultaneous
access to individual data elements by
multiple sites needs to be prevented

- Software control (usually a function of

the DBMS) that prevents multiple
simultaneous accesses to data.
 Distributed Databases
- It can be distributed using either partitioned or
replicated technique

Partitioned Database
- Splits the central database into segments or
partitions that are distributed to their primary users.
The advantage of this approach are:

1. Storing data at local sites increases users control

2. Permitting local access to data and reducing the
volume of data that must be transmitted between
sites improves transaction processing response
time
3. Reduce the potential for disaster
 Replicated Databases

- Effective in companies in which there exists

a high degree of data sharing but no primary
user.
- Data traffic between sites is reduced
considerably
- Supports read-only queries

Concurrency Control

- The presence of complete and accurate

data at all remote sites.
- Systems designers need to employ methods
that transactions processed at each site are
accurately reflected in the databases at all other
Distinguishing features
of Structured and
Relational databases