DATABASE Arpit Madaan

MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
WHAT IS DATA?
Database is a collection of related data and data is a
collection of facts and figures that can be processed to
produce information.

Mostly data represents recordable facts. Data aids in

producing information, which is based on facts. For
example, if we have data about marks obtained by all
students, we can then conclude about toppers and
average marks.
FILE SYSTEM
1. In a typical File System electronic data are directly stored in a set of files. If only one
table is stored in a file, they are called flat files.
2. In files values are stored in each row separated with a special delimiter like
commas.
3. In order to query some random data, first it is required to parse each row and load it
to an array at run time. But for this file should be read sequentially (because, there
is no control mechanism in files), therefore it is quite inefficient and time
consuming.
4. And the second hurdle is to locate the files.
5. The user either has to perform each task manually or has to write a script that does
them automatically with the help of the file management capabilities of the
operating system.
6. These all issues with the file system leads to the serious issues of inconsistency,
inability for concurrency, data isolation, threats on integrity and lack of security.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM

A database management system stores data in such a way

that it becomes easier to retrieve, manipulate, and
produce information.

Traditionally, data was organized in file formats. DBMS was a

new concept then, and all the research was done to make it
overcome the deficiencies in traditional style of data
management.
CHARACTERISTICS
A modern database has the following characteristics
Real world entity
A modern DBMS is more realistic and uses real-world entities to design its architecture. It
uses the behavior and attributes too. For example, a school database may use students as
an entity and their age as an attribute.

Relation based tables

DBMS allows entities and relations among them to form tables. A user can understand the
architecture of a database just by looking at the table names.

Isolation of data and application

A database system is entirely different than its data. A database is an active entity,
whereas data is said to be passive, on which the database works and organizes. DBMS also
stores metadata, which is data about data, to ease its own process.

Less Redundancy
DBMS follows the rules of normalization, which splits a relation when any of its
attributes is having redundancy in values. Normalization is a mathematically rich
and scientific process that reduces data redundancy.

Consistency
Consistency is a state where every relation in a database remains consistent.
There exist methods and techniques, which can detect attempt of leaving
database in inconsistent state. A DBMS can provide greater consistency as
compared to earlier forms of data storing applications like file-processing
systems.

ACID Properties (Atomicity, Consistency,Isolation, andDurability)
Atomic Transaction
Anatomic transactionis a series of database operations such that eitheralloccur, ornothingoccurs. Example:
Airline Ticket Booking
Consistency
The guarantee that database constraints are not violated, particularly once a transaction commits
Isolation
Isolation determines how transaction integrity is visible to other users and systems.
Serializable
Repeatable Reads
Read Committed
Read Un-Committed
Durability
Guarantees that transactions that have committed will survive permanently.
For example, if a flight booking reports that a seat has successfully been booked, then the seat will remain booked
even if the system crashes.
Durability can be achieved by flushing the transaction's log records to non-volatile storage before acknowledging
commitment.

Multiuser and Concurrent Access
DBMS supports multi-user environment and allows them to access and manipulate data in
parallel. Though there are restrictions on transactions when users attempt to handle the same
data item, but users are always unaware of them.

Multiple views
DBMS offers multiple views for different users. A user who is in the Sales department will have a
different view of database than a person working in the Production department. This feature
enables the users to have a concentrate view of the database according to their requirements.

Security
Features like multiple views offer security to some extent where users are unable to access
data of other users and departments.
DBMS offers methods to impose constraints while entering data into the database and
retrieving the same at a later stage.
For example, a user in the Sales department cannot see the data that belongs to the Purchase
department. Additionally, it can also be managed how much data of the Sales department should
be displayed to the user. Since a DBMS is not saved on the disk as traditional file systems, it is
very hard for miscreants to break the code.
1 & 2 TIER ARCHITECTURE
Tier 1-
In 1-tier architecture, the DBMS is the only entity where the user directly
sits on the DBMS and uses it. Any changes done here will directly be done
on the DBMS itself. It does not provide handy tools for end-users. Database
designers and programmers normally prefer to use single-tier architecture.
Tier 2-
If the architecture of DBMS is 2-tier, then it must have an application
through which the DBMS can be accessed. Programmers use 2-tier
architecture where they access the DBMS by means of an application.
Here the application tier is entirely independent of the database in terms
of operation, design, and programming.
3-TIER ARCHITECTURE
Database (Data) Tier At this tier, the database resides along
with its query processing languages. We also have the relations
that define the data and their constraints at this level.

Application (Middle) Tier At this tier reside the application

server and the programs that access the database. For a user,
this application tier presents an abstracted view of the database.
End-users are unaware of any existence of the database beyond
the application. At the other end, the database tier is not aware
of any other user beyond the application tier. Hence, the
application layer sits in the middle and acts as a mediator
between the end-user and the database.

User (Presentation) Tier End-users operate on this tier and

they know nothing about any existence of the database beyond
this layer. At this layer, multiple views of the database can be
provided by the application. All views are generated by
DATA MODELS
A data model organizes data elements and standardizes how the
data elements relate to one another. Since data elements
document real life people, places and things and the events
between them, the data model represents reality,

Data models define how the logical structure of a database is

modeled. Data Models are fundamental entities to introduce
abstraction in a DBMS. Data models define how data is connected
to each other and how they are processed and stored inside the
system.
ENTITY-RELATIONSHIP
MODEL
Entity-Relationship (ER) Model is based on the notion of real-world
entities and relationships among them. While formulating real-
world scenario into the database model, the ER Model creates
entity set, relationship set, general attributes and constraints.

ER Model is best used for the conceptual design of a database.

ER Model is based on
1. Entitiesand theirattributes.
2. Relationshipsamong entities.

Entity An entity in an ER Model is a real-world entity having
properties calledattributes. Everyattributeis defined by its set
of values calleddomain. For example, in a school database, a
student is considered as an entity. Student has various attributes
like name, age, class, etc.
Relationship The logical association among entities is called
relationship. Relationships are mapped with entities in various
ways. Mapping cardinalities define the number of association
between two entities.
Mapping cardinalities
One to One
 One to
Many

Many to
Many

Many to
A person can have many Oneaddresses but if
reverse this, then many addresses belongs
to one person.
Means many entities belongs to one entity.
RELATIONAL MODEL
The most popular data model in DBMS is the Relational Model. It is

more scientific a model than others.

The main highlights of this model are
1. Data is stored in tables calledrelations.
2. Relations can be normalized.
3. Each row in a relation contains a unique value.
4. Each column in a relation contains values from a same domain.
DATABASE SCHEMA

A database schema is the

skeleton structure that
represents the logical view
of the entire database. It
defines how the data is
organized and how the
relations among them are
associated.

A database schema can be divided broadly into two categories

Physical Database Schema This schema pertains to the actual

storage of data and its form of storage like files, indices, etc. It
defines how the data will be stored in a secondary storage.

Logical Database Schema This schema defines all the logical

constraints that need to be applied on the data stored. It defines
tables, views, and integrity constraints.
DATABASE INSTANCE
Database schema is the skeleton of database. It is designed when
the database doesn't exist at all. Once the database is operational,
it is very difficult to make any changes to it. A database schema
does not contain any data or information.

A database instance is a state of operational database with data at

any given time. It contains a snapshot of the database. Database
instances tend to change with time. A DBMS ensures that its every
instance (state) is in a valid state, by diligently following all the
validations, constraints, and conditions that the database designers
have imposed.
SQL STATEMENT
LANGUAGES
1. Data Definition Language (DDL) statements are used to define
the database structure or schema. Some examples:

CREATE - to create objects in the database

ALTER - alters the structure of the database
DROP - delete objects from the database
TRUNCATE - remove all records from a table, including all spaces allocated for
the records are removed
COMMENT - add comments to the data dictionary
RENAME - rename an object
2. Data Manipulation Language (DML) statements are used for
managing data within schema objects. Some examples:

SELECT - retrieve data from the a database

INSERT - insert data into a table
UPDATE - updates existing data within a table
DELETE - deletes all records from a table, the space for the records remain
MERGE - UPSERT operation (insert or update)
CALL - call a PL/SQL or Java subprogram
EXPLAIN PLAN - explain access path to data
LOCK TABLE - control concurrency
3. DCL: Data Control Language (DCL) statements. Some examples:

GRANT - gives user's access privileges to database

REVOKE - withdraw access privileges given with the GRANT command

4. Transaction Control (TCL) statements are used to manage the

changes made by DML statements. It allows statements to be
grouped together into logical transactions.

COMMIT - save work done

SAVEPOINT - identify a point in a transaction to which you can later roll back
ROLLBACK - restore database to original since the last COMMIT
SET TRANSACTION - Change transaction options like isolation level and what
rollback segment to use
ER MODEL- BASIC CONCEPT
The ER(Entity Relationship) model defines the conceptual view of a
database. It works around real-world entities and the associations
among them.
Entity-
An entity can be a real-world object, either animate or inanimate,
that can be easily identifiable. For example, in a school database,
students, teachers, classes, and courses offered can be considered
as entities.
Entities are represented by means of rectangles. Rectangles are
named with the entity set they represent.
Attributes
Entities are represented by means of their properties,
calledattributes. All attributes have values. For example, a
student entity may have name, class, and age as attributes.
Attributes are the properties of entities. Attributes are represented
by means of ellipses. Every ellipse represents one attribute and is
directly connected to its entity (rectangle).
TYPES OF ATTRIBUTE
1. Simple attribute Simple attributes are atomic values, which cannot be divided
further. For example, a student's phone number is an atomic value of 10 digits.
2. Composite attribute Composite attributes are made of more than one simple
attribute. For example, a student's complete name may have first_name and
last_name.
3. Derived attribute Derived attributes are the attributes that do not exist in the
physical database, but their values are derived from other attributes present in the
database. For example, average_salary in a department should not be saved directly
in the database, instead it can be derived. For another example, age can be derived
from data_of_birth.
4. Single-value attribute Single-value attributes contain single value. For example
Social_Security_Number.
5. Multi-value attribute Multi-value attributes may contain more than one values.
For example, a person can have more than one phone number, email_address, etc.
 Composite
Attribute

Simple
Attribute

Multivalued
Attribute

Derived
Attribute
ENTITY-SET AND KEYS
Key is an attribute or collection of attributes that uniquely identifies an entity among entity set.
For example, the roll_number of a student makes him/her identifiable among students.
1. Super Key A set of attributes (one or more) that collectively identifies an entity in an
entity set. A superkey is a combination of columns that uniquely identifies any row within a
relational database management system (RDBMS) table. A candidate key is a closely related
concept where the superkey is reduced to the minimum number of columns required to
uniquely identify each row.
2. Candidate Key Acandidate keyis a column, or set of columns, in a table that can
uniquely identify any database record without referring to any other data. Each table may
have one or morecandidate keys, but onecandidate keyis special, and it is called the
primarykey.
3. Primary Key A primary key is one of the candidate keys chosen by the database designer
to uniquely identify the entity set. Aprimary key'smain features are: It must contain a
unique value for each row of data. It cannot contain null values.
 Table: Super Keys
Customer
Name+SSN+Birthdate
Customer ID+Name+SSN Primary Key
name
Customer ID SSN
Social security ID
number (SSN) Candidate Keys
Address
Date of birth ID+SSN
RELATIONSHIPS
The association among entities is called a relationship. For
example, an employeeworks_ata department, a
studentenrollsin a course. Here, Works_at and Enrolls are called
relationships.

Relationship Sets
A set of relationships of similar type is called a relationship set. Like
entities, a relationship too can have attributes. These attributes are
calleddescriptive attributes.
MAPPING CARDINALITIES
Cardinalitydefines the number of entities in one entity set, which
can be associated with the number of entities of other set via
relationship set.
1. One-to-one One entity from entity set A can be associated
with at most one entity of entity set B and vice versa.
One-to-many
One entity from entity set A can be associated with more than one entities of entity set
B however an entity from entity set B, can be associated with at most one entity.

Many-to-one
More than one entities from entity set A can be associated with at most one entity of entity
set B, however an entity from entity set B can be associated with more than one entity
from entity set A.
Many-to-many One entity from A can be associated with more
than one entity from B and vice versa.
GENERALIZATION
As mentioned above, the process of generalizing entities, where the
generalized entities contain the properties of all the generalized
entities, is called generalization. In generalization, a number of
entities are brought together into one generalized entity based on
their similar characteristics. For example, pigeon, house sparrow,
crow and dove can all be generalized as Birds.
SPECIALIZATION
Specialization is the opposite of
generalization. In specialization, a group
of entities is divided into sub-groups
based on their characteristics.
Take a group Person for example. A
person has name, date of birth, gender,
etc. These properties are common in all
persons, human beings. But in a
company, persons can be identified as
employee, employer, customer, or
vendor, based on what role they play in
the company.
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