Chapter 1

the science of psychology

psychology
fourth edition
Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White
2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Learning Objectives
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8

What defines psychology as a field of study, and what are psychologys four primary
goals?
Who were some of the early pioneers in psychology, and how did structuralism and
functionalism differ?
What were the basic ideas and who were the important people behind the early
approaches known as Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism?
What are the basic ideas behind the eight modern perspectives, and what were the
important contributions of Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers?
How does a psychologist differ from a psychiatrist, and what are the other types of
professionals who work in the various areas of psychology?
Why is psychology considered a science, and what are the steps in using the scientific
method?
How are naturalistic and laboratory settings used to describe behavior, and what are some
of the advantages and disadvantages associated with these settings?
How are case studies and surveys used to describe behavior, and what are some
drawbacks to each of these methods?

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Learning Objectives Continued

1.9
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.13
1.14
1.15
1.16
1.17
1.18
1.19

What is the correlational technique, and what does it tell researchers about relationships?
What are the steps involved in designing an experiment?
How do the placebo and experimenter effects cause problems in an experiment, and how
can single-blind and double-blind studies control for these effects?
What are some basic elements of a real-world experiment?
Why are statistics important to psychologists and psychology majors?
What types of tables and graphs represent patterns in data?
What types of statistics examine central tendencies in data?
What types of statistics examine variations in data?
How can statistics be used to determine if differences in sets of data are large enough to
be due to something other than chance variation?
What are some ethical concerns that can occur when conducting research with people
and animals?
What are the basic principles of critical thinking, and how can critical thinking be useful in
everyday life?

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

AP Learning Objectives
I. History and Approaches
Recognize the strengths and limitations of applying theories to explain behavior.
Recognize how philosophical and psychological perspectives shaped the development of
psychological thought.
Describe and compare different theoretical approaches in explaining behavior.
Identify major historical figures in psychology.
Articulate the impact of social and cultural categories on self-concept and relations with
others.
Discuss psychologys abiding interest in how heredity, environment, and evolution work
together to shape behavior.

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

AP Learning Objectives Continued

I. History and Approaches (cont.)
Predict how traits and behavior can be selected for their adaptive value.
Distinguish the different domains of psychology.

II. Research Methods

Differentiate different types of research with regard to purpose, strengths, and
weaknesses.
Distinguish the purposes of descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.
Describe how research design drives the reasonable conclusions that can be drawn.

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

AP Learning Objectives Continued

II. Research Methods (cont.)
Discuss the value of reliance on operational definitions and
measurement in behavioral research.
Identify independent, dependent, confounding, and control
variables in experimental designs.
Distinguish between random assignment of participants to
conditions in experiments and random selection of participants,
primarily in correlational studies and surveys.
Predict the validity of behavioral explanations based on the
quality of research design.
Apply basic descriptive statistical concepts, including interpreting
and constructing graphs and calculating simple descriptive
statistics.
Interpret the meaning of scores in terms of the normal curve.
Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White
2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

AP Learning Objectives Continued

III. Ethical Concerns
Identify how ethical issues inform and constrain research practices.
Describe how ethical and legal guidelines protect research participants and promote
sound ethical practice.

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

What makes you say that?

Bob is driving to work when another driver cuts him off. In
response, Bob starts to yell, curse, and inappropriately
gesture towards the other driver.
Why do you think Bob behaved as he did? What makes
you say that?

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Development of Psychology
Throughout history people have sought to answer:
How does our mind work?
How does our body relate to our mind?
How much of what we know and how we act comes
built in?
How much is acquired through experience?

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Pre-scientific Psychology
What is the relation of mind to the body?
Mind and body are
connected

Mind and body are

distinct

The Hebrews

Socrates

Aristotle

Plato

Augustine

Descartes

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Pre-scientific Psychology
How are ideas formed?
Some ideas are inborn

The mind is a blank

slate

Socrates

Aristotle

Plato

Locke

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

What Is Psychology today?

LO 1.1 Definition and Goals of Psychology

Psychology: the scientific study of behavior and mental

processes
behavior: outward or overt actions and reactions
mental processes: internal, covert activity of our minds

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Psychology is a Science
LO 1.1 Definition and Goals of Psychology

Prevent possible biases from leading to faulty

observations
Precise and careful measurement
The scientific method is used

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Psychologys Four Goals

LO 1.1 Definition and Goals of Psychology

AP: Strengths and Limitations of Theories

Description
What is happening?
Explanation
Why is it happening?
theory: general explanation of a set of observations or facts
Prediction
Will it happen again?
Control
How can it be changed?

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

LO 1.2 Structuralism and Functionalism

Structuralism
AP: How Psychological Thought Was Shaped

focused on the structure or basic elements of the

mind
Structuralism was a school of thought that sought to
identify the components (structure) of the mind (the
mind was the key element to psychology at this
point).
Structuralists believed that the way to learn about
the brain and its functions was to break the mind
down into its most basic elements.
They believed, the whole is equal to the sum of the
parts.
Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White
2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Structuralism
LO 1.2 Structuralism and Functionalism

AP: Different Theoretical Approaches/Major Historical Figures

Wilhelm Wundt, who is considered the pioneer

Structuralist, set up the very first psychological
laboratory in 1879.
Following Wundt was Edward Titchener who
popularized the field (he was one of Wundt's
students).
He was interested in the conscious mind. He used a
technique called introspection to try to understand the
conscious mind.
Introspection is a process of having a person "look inward",
focus on, and try to understand the emotion or thought they
are experiencing at that moment.

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Structuralism
LO 1.2 Structuralism and Functionalism

AP: Different Theoretical Approaches/Major Historical Figures

Margaret Washburn
Titcheners student; first woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology

Structuralism died out in the early 1900s.

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

LO 1.2 Structuralism and Functionalism

Functionalism

Functionalism

AP: Different Theoretical Approaches/Major Historical Figures

how the mind allows people to adapt, live, work, and play
Functionalism was the psychological school of thought that
followed Structuralism and moved away from focusing on
the structure of the mind to a concern with how the
conscious is related to behavior...
How does the mind affect what people do?
One of the major proponents of Functionalism was Edward
Thorndike who studied the primary issue of functionalism...

WHAT FUNCTION DOES A BEHAVIOR HAVE? In addition, this

school of thought focused on observable events as opposed to
unobservable events (like what goes on in someone's mind).

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Functionalism
LO 1.2 Structuralism and Functionalism

AP: Different Theoretical Approaches/Major Historical Figures

Functionalism
Proposed by William James
Influenced the modern fields of:
educational psychology
evolutionary psychology
industrial/organizational psychology

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Gestalt Psychology
LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, Psychoanalysis, and Behaviorism

AP: Different Theoretical Approaches/Major Historical Figures

Gestalt
an organized whole

Started with Max Wertheimer, who studied sensation and

perception
Gestalt ideas are now part of the study of cognitive
psychology
cognitive psychology: field focusing not only on perception but
also on learning, memory, thought processes, and problem
solving
Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White
2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

The term Gestalt may be defined as an object, idea, or experience as

being more than the sum of its parts. When you put the parts
together, you get the whole - in other words, you get the Gestalt.

Gestalt is the basis of Gestalt Psychology, which is the study of how

people integrate and organize perceptual information (information
they perceive - things they see, hear, etc) into meaningful wholes.
For example, can you tell what this is?: 8> )

The reason you may be able to recognize a face is because you're

able to see an overall form (a face) just by putting a few symbols or
shapes together. In other words, you see the Gestalt, not just the
symbols. This is incredibly useful but can sometimes lead to
problems such as illusions or visual tricks.

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Figure 1.1 A Gestalt Perception

The eye tends to fill in the blanks hereand sees both of these figures as circles rather than as a series of dots or a
broken line.

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Psychoanalysis
LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, Psychoanalysis, and Behaviorism

AP: Different Theoretical Approaches/Major Historical Figures

Psychoanalysis: theory and therapy based on the work of

Sigmund Freud
Freuds patients suffered from nervous disorders with no
apparent physical cause.
Freud proposed the existence of an unconscious (unaware) mind
into which we pushor repressour threatening urges and desires
He also stressed the importance of childhood experiences

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Psychoanalysis
LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, Psychoanalysis, and Behaviorism

Freuds followers included:

Alfred Adler
Carl Jung
Anna Freud
Erik Erikson

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

AP: Different Theoretical Approaches/Major Historical Figures

Behaviorism
LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, Psychoanalysis, and Behaviorism

AP: Different Theoretical Approaches

Behaviorism
science of behavior that focuses on observable behavior only
must be directly seen and measured

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Behaviorism
LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, Psychoanalysis, and Behaviorism

AP: Different Theoretical Approaches/Major Historical Figures

Proposed by John B. Watson

based on the work of Ivan Pavlov, who
demonstrated that a reflex could be
conditioned (learned)
Watson believed that phobias were learned
case of Little Albert: baby taught to fear a white
rat

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Modern Perspectives
LO 1.4 Modern Perspectives: Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers

AP: Different Theoretical Approaches/Major Historical Figures

Psychodynamic perspective: modern version of

psychoanalysis
more focused on the development of a sense of self and the
discovery of motivations behind a persons behavior other than
sexual motivations

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Modern Perspectives
LO 1.4 Modern Perspectives: Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers

AP: Different Theoretical Approaches/Major Historical Figures

Behavioral perspective
B. F. Skinner studied operant conditioning of voluntary behavior
Behaviorism became a major force in the twentieth century
Skinner introduced the concept of reinforcement to behaviorism

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Modern Perspectives
LO 1.4 Modern Perspectives: Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers

AP: Different Theoretical Approaches/Major Historical Figures

Humanistic perspective
Owes far more to the early roots of psychology in the field of
philosophy
People have free will: the freedom to choose their own destiny
Early founders:
Abraham Maslow
Carl Rogers

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Modern Perspectives
LO 1.4 Modern Perspectives: Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers

AP: Different Theoretical Approaches/Major Historical Figures

Humanistic perspective
Emphasizes the human potential, the ability of each person to
become the best person he or she could be
self-actualization: achieving ones full potential or actual self

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Modern Perspectives
LO 1.4 Modern Perspectives: Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers

AP: Different Theoretical Approaches/Major Historical Figures

The Impact of Social and Cultural Categories

Cognitive perspective
focuses on memory, intelligence, perception,
problem solving, and learning

Sociocultural perspective
focuses on the relationship between social
behavior and culture
includes cross-cultural research

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Modern Perspectives
LO 1.4 Modern Perspectives: Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers

AP: Different Theoretical Approaches/Major Historical Figures

Biological (Behavioral-Genetics) perspective

attributes human and animal behavior to biological events
occurring in the body, such as genetic influences, hormones,
and the activity of the nervous system

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Modern Perspectives
LO 1.4 Modern Perspectives: Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers

AP: Different Theoretical Approaches/Major Historical Figures

Neuroscience
attributes human and animal behavior to neurotransmitters,
neurochemicals, brain activity, and brain damage.

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Modern Perspectives
LO 1.4 Modern Perspectives: Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers

AP: Different Theoretical Approaches/Major Historical Figures

How Heredity, Environment, and Evolution Work Together
How Traits Are Selected for Adaptive Value

Evolutionary perspective
focuses on the biological bases of universal
mental characteristics that all humans share
looks at the way the mind works and why it
works as it does
behavior seen as having an adaptive or
survival value

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Modern Perspectives
LO 1.4 Modern Perspectives: Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers

AP: Different Theoretical Approaches/Major Historical Figures

Biopsychosocial perspective
Combines biology, psychology, and social interactions to help
explain a person

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Statements
Psychodynamic
Behavioral
Behavior-Genetics
Humanistic
Cognitive
Social-Cultural
Neuroscience
Evolutionary
Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White
2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Careers in Psychology

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Types of Psychological Professionals

LO 1.5 Psychiatrists, Psychologists, and Other Professionals

AP: Domains of Psychology

Psychologist
professional with an academic degree and specialized training
in one or more areas of psychology
can do counseling, teaching, and research; may specialize in
any one of a large number of areas within psychology
areas of specialization in psychology include clinical, counseling,
developmental, social, and personality, among others

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Types of Psychological Professionals

LO 1.5 Psychiatrists, Psychologists, and Other Professionals

AP: Domains of Psychology

Psychiatrist
medical doctor who has specialized in the diagnosis and
treatment of psychological disorders

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Types of Psychological Professionals

LO 1.5 Psychiatrists, Psychologists, and Other Professionals

AP: Domains of Psychology

Psychiatric social worker

social worker with some training in therapy methods who
focuses on the environmental conditions that can have an
impact on mental disorders, such as poverty, overcrowding,
stress, and drug abuse

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Figure 1.2 Work Settings and Subfields of Psychology

(a) There are many different work settings for psychologists. Although not obvious from the chart,many psychologists
work in more than one setting. For example, a clinical psychologist may work in a hospital setting and teach at a
university or college. (Tsapogas et al., 2006) (b) This pie chart shows the specialty areas of psychologists who recently
received their doctorates. (Hoffer et al., 2007)

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Careers in Psychology

http://careersinpsychology.org/

Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White

2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Careers in Psychology
You will use the website provided to research a profession in the field
of psychology. Take some time to look through the various options and try
to find something that might interest you before you begin the assignment.
Answer the questions below in paragraph form.
1. What is the name of the profession you have chosen?
2. Is this profession a counselor, social worker, psychologist, or therapist?
3. Provide a brief description of the work that someone in that field does.
4. Why do we need people in this profession?
5. What are the education requirements for this profession? (include
number of years if provided)
6. What is the salary for this profession?
7. What do you personally find interesting about this profession?
This is due by the end of the period. Please share the paragraph on google
drive with [email protected].
Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White
2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.