AP Psych--Dyal

WHY DO WE NEED
RESEARCH?
Why? Because just asking people how/why
they felt and acted the way they did can be
misleading.
Common sense isnt all it is cracked up to be.

A DEMONSTRATION
Group B close your eyes.
Group A: Psychologists have found that
separation weakens romantic attraction. As
the saying goes out of sight, out of mind.
Write down why this might be the case.

A DEMONSTRATION
Group A close your eyes.
Group B: Psychologists have found that
separation strengthens romantic attraction.
As the saying goes absence makes the heart
grow fonder.
Write down why this might be the case.

A DEMONSTRATION
Find a member of the opposite group. Discuss
the question below, being sure to provide
evidence.
What impact does separation have on
romantic relationships?
When both a supposed finding and its opposite seem like
common sense, we have a problem.

HINDSIGHT BIAS
The problem we have is hindsight bias, or the
feeling that because something has already
happened, it is inevitable.
I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon

ANOTHER
DEMONSTRATION
Consider these three anagrams:
WREAT WATER
ETRYN ENTRY
GRABE BARGE

How many seconds do you think it

would take you to unscramble each of
these?
OCHSA

WHATS THE POINT?

Hindsight bias and overconfidence often lead
us to overestimate our intuition (common
sense). Scientific inquiry can help us move
from illusion back to fact.
We must operate in a stake of curious skepticism. Always
ask What do you mean? How do you know?

3 COMPONENTS OF A
SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDE
1. Curiosity-seeking patterns in a random
world
2. Skepticism-What do you mean? How do you
know?
3. Humility-a realization that we are human
and subject to error

SCIENTISTS ARE
CRITICAL THINKERS
Critical thinking involves:
Examines assumptions
Assesses the source
Discerns hidden values
Confirms evidence
Assesses conclusions

WHY USE RESEARCH

METHODS?
Empirical research is designed to
investigate a hypothesis under
conditions designed to control biases
and subjective judgements.
Psychology is a SCIENCEit starts with
a theory.

GOOD RESEARCH
BEGINS WITH A THEORY
A theory organizes observations and
predicts behaviors or events.

LETS THEORIZE!
Observe:
I observe that in my classes, students who sit in the
frond do better on exams than students who sit in the
back.

Theorize:
I theorize that sitting in the front contributes to good
grades.

PUTTING THEORIES TO
THE TEST
Now, we have to take our theory and make it
into something we can test, a hypothesis.
Theorize:
I theorize that sitting in the front contributes to good
grades.

Hypothesize (If_________then __________):

I hypothesize that IF students sit in the first row, THEN they
will earn better grades on Unit Tests.

HYPOTHESIZING
The key to having a good hypothesis is defining
what scientists call operational definitions
which tell how variables will be measured and
makes replication possible.
I observe that in my classes, students who sit
in the front do better on exams than students
who sit in the back.
VS
I hypothesize that IF students sit in the first row,
THEN they will earn better grades on Unit Tests.

1. Developing a hypothesis
2. Conducting a controlled experiment
3. Gathering objective data
4. Analyzing the results and accepting or
rejecting your hypothesis
5. Publishing, criticizing, and replicating the
results

1. CONSTRUCTING A
HYPOTHESIS
Formulate a testable prediction based
on a theory which can be proven or
refuted
Example: IF someone goes running for a while at
different speeds, THEN their heart rate will go up a
lot.

1. CONSTRUCTING A
HYPOTHESIS
CONTINUED

Clearly define procedures, conditions, and measures of

an experiment, so that other researchers may replicate
the experiment.
Example:
Researchers may define running as any speed above 5 mph.
Researchers may define a lot as more than 20 beats per minute
above the resting heart rate.

Scientists may replicate someone elses original

experiment to compare the results
Similar results from different people=more reliability in the
experiments findings

IN CLASS EXAMPLE
With a partner, write an
operational definition for the
following variables:
Tall
Old
Happiness
Intelligent
Popularity
Good music

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Be clear on who is profiting and getting credit for the

research.
Do not have personal relationships that could interfere with
research.
Follow informed consent rules
Is this going to harm you?
Side effects
Health risks
Right to decline or withdraw

Respect confidentiality and privacy of participants

No cruel and unusual punishment of participants
Debrief the participants (explain afterward)

TYPES OF RESEARCH
METHODS
1. Descriptive methods
Used to describe behaviors
Case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observations

2. Correlational methods
Describes the relationship between variables and allows
one to predict behavior

3. Experimental methods
Attempts to show a cause-effect relationship between
variables

CASE STUDY
Studying one individual (or group or
event) in great depth over time
Positive-allows researchers to study rare casescan
suggest hypotheses for future study
Negative-individuals may not be representative of
larger populationsdifficult or impossible to replicate

CASE STUDY EXAMPLE

On November 4, 1970, a 13-year-old
girl was discovered in an Arcadia,
California home. She had never left her
home, was beaten for making noise,
and was never spoken to. The girl also
expressed no form of written or verbal
communication. She became known to
the world as Genie. By studying
Genie, psychologists were able to test
and learn many different things about
language acquisition.

NATURALISTIC
OBSERVATION
Observing and recording behavior in a natural
setting without trying to manipulate or control
the situation
Positive-records the behaviors of people in their natural
settings, thus allows the researchers to see real world
behaviorcan suggest hypothesis for future study
Negative-Does not explain behavioronly describes it
requires careful training of observers so that observations
are reliable

Can be cross-sectional or longitudinal

NATURALISTIC
OBSERVATION EXAMPLE
Researchers compared the play of 76
children, ages four to six. Children from
higher socioeconomic backgrounds were
more likely to engage in imaginative pretend
play.
2007 Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology

These studies are designed to cut down on

time and expense.
Cross-sectional studies look at a cross section of the
population and studies them at one point in time.
Ex: prevalence of breast cancer across the population

Cohort-sequential studies look at a cross section of

population and then studies them over a short period of
time.

LONGITUDINAL STUDIES
An observational study conducted over a long
period of time
Helps to analyze changes and developments with the
participants
More likely to determine cause and effect relationships
between variables
Can be very costly
Example: How does walking daily affect the cholesterol of women over 40?

SURVEY
Asking people to report their behaviors or
opinions
Positive-allows researchers to study a great number of
peoplerelatively quick and inexpensive
Negative-wording can greatly influence results

SURVEY EXAMPLE
1992 survey
The term Holocaust usually refers to the killing of millions of
Jews during World War II. Does it seem possible or does it
seem impossible to you that the Nazi extermination of the
Jews never happened?
22% of respondents said it was possible the events never happened
12% were unsure

When the question was reworded, Does it seem possible to

you that the Nazi extermination of the Jews never happened,
or do you feel certain it happened?
1% of respondents said it was possible the events never happened and
8% were unsure

COMPONENTS OF A
SURVEY
Population: all the individuals you are interested in
knowing something about.
Sample: the individuals you actually question.
Sampling should always be taken randomly from the
population so that it is representative meaning each
individual in the population had an equal chance of
being selected.

EXAMPLE OF A SURVEY
Do teenage boys eat more than
teenage girls?
1200 randomly selected teenagers were asked
about their eating habits.
What is population?
What is sample?

CORRELATIONAL
STUDIES
Help researchers predict behavior
Think of it this way:
You and your brother are related. (correlation)
You did not cause your brother. (causation)

CORRELATION DOES
NOT EQUAL CAUSATION
Just because there is a relationship between
two variables DOES NOT mean that one
caused the other.

CORRELATIONS CAN
BE
Positive-indicates a direct relationship (as A goes up, B
goes up OR as A goes down, B goes down)
Example: The more you run, the more fat you will lose. OR The less
you run, the less fat you will lose.
If the words more and less can be swapped, the correlation is
positive.

Negative-indicates an inverse relationship (as A goes

up, B goes down)

CORRELATIONAL
SCATTER PLOTS

POSITIVE CORRELATION
COEFFICIENTS
Positive correlation coefficients indicate a stronger
connection as they get closer to 1.

ILLUSIONARY
CORRELATIONS
When we believe there is a correlation,
we are likely to recall instances that
confirm our belief.
Example: Getting cold outside in rainy weather will
make children get sick.

QUASI RESEARCH
Ex Post Facto design-research that requires
special procedures due to ethical concerns
Selecting participants based on a pre-existing
condition instead of randomly
I.e. cancer research, obesity research, AIDS research, etc..

EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH
Manipulating an independent variable
in an attempt to determine if a causeeffect relationship exists
Positive-only research method that can identify
causesresearcher can control variables
Negative-it may be difficult to replicate real world
conditions

EXPERIMENTAL
COMPONENTS
Every experiment has two variables
Manipulating one of more factors (independent
variable) to determine the effect on some
behavior or mental process (dependent variable)
Always find your dependent variable first
Dependent variables will ALWAYS be either a behavior or mental process i.e.
mood, intelligence, strength

Then, you can easily find the independent variable

Independent variables will ALWAYS be what you are manipulating i.e. pill

Ask yourself: What is the effect of ___________ on ___________?

IV
DV

VARIABLES
Both independent (stimulus or cause) and dependent
(behavior or mental process) must have operation
definitions which tell us how it will be measured or what
it will look like.
Example:
A researcher hypothesizes that going to bed early will
increase energy levels.
IV-going to bed early

Operation Definition: at least 8 hours of

sleep

DV-increased energy levels

crashes throughout the day

Operation Definition: no energy

VALIDITY
One goal when designing experiments is to
ensure validity.
Validity refers to the extent to which a test
measures what it is supposed to measure.
Face validity refers to the extent to which a measure
appears on the surface to measure what it is suppose to
measure.
Criterion validity is a way of assessing validity by
comparing the results with another measure.
Construct validity is a way of assessing validity by
investigating if the measure really is measuring the
theoretical construct it is suppose to.

STEPS OF A PERFECT
EXPERIMENT
1. After defining research variables,
experimenters should select participants by
randomly selecting from a representative
population.
2. Then, researchers should randomly assign
participants to either the control group or
experimental group.
Researchers should never ever self-select participants
because it invalidates results and data

Representative
Population

Random Sampling

Control Group

Experimental
Group

GROUPS WITHIN AN
EXPERIMENT
Experimental-group that is exposed to
the independent variable (treatment)
Control Condition-refers to the group
that does not receive the independent
variable.
This group is often given a placebo: inert substance.
(usually in the form of a fake pill)

STEPS FOR A PERFECT

EXPERIMENT
CONTINUED

3. Set up control procedures to stop possible

bias and confounding variables
Double Blind Procedure: experimental procedure in which
both the research participants and the research staff are
ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants
have received the treatment or a placebo.
Meant to eliminate bias.

EXPERIMENTS WANT TO
AVOID CONFOUNDING
(LURKING) VARIABLES
Confounding Variables-refers to a
hidden or uncontrolled aspect of an
experiment that can distort the results
of an experiment.
Example: Having the control group tested in a
different room than the experimental group would be
a confounding variable. Why?

LAST STEP FOR A

PERFECT EXPERIMENT
4. Researchers should compare the results of
the control and experimental groups using
statistics to see if the differences between the
two groups of the experiment are statistically
significant.
Statistical significance- differences between
the groups could not have happened by
random chance. This helps establish causation.
Experiments should be replicated with
different participants to determine validity.

CAN YOU DO IT?

Researchers are interested in finding out whether
eating a healthy breakfast increases school
performance. Identify:
IV (including operation definition)
DV (including operational definition)
How to Sample?
Describe Experimental and Control Group
A Control Procedure

EXPERIMENT CHECK LIST

Experiments start with a testable prediction:
hypotheses
Experiments aim to manipulate an IV
Experiments measure the DV
Experiments have at least two groups:
control and experimental

Experiments test the effect of the IV on the DV

Representative sampling is a must
Random selection is a must
Random assignment is a must

USING STATISTICS TO
ANALYZE DATA
In psych, we use statistics to interpret data
from experiments.
Statistics help to eliminate public
misinformation.
Example: A friend tells you that 10% of people in our
population are gay or lesbian. (Actually it is only 2-3%)
Be cautious of big, round, undocumented numbers.

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
Organizing data into graphs and charts to
help make sense of the data.
Usually summarized by some measure of
central tendency such as a mean, median, or
mode.

Mean (average): The measure of central

tendency most often used to describe a
set of data.
To calculate mean, simply add all the scores and
divide by the number of scores.
While the mean is easy to calculate, it has a big
downside. It can easily be skewed by extreme scores.
Example: If Bill Gates sits down in a caf, the average
income of the caf patrons skyrockets to billions.

Median: A measure of central

tendency represented by the score that
separates the upper half of the scores
in a distribution from the lower half.
The big advantage of this is the median is not effected by
extreme scores.

Mode: A measure of central tendency

which represents the score that occurs
most often.

SKEWED DISTRIBUTION
A distribution is skewed if one of
its tails is longer than the other.
The first distribution shown has a
positive skew. This means that it has
a long tail in the positive direction.
The second distribution has a negative
skew since it has a long tail in the
negative direction.
Finally, the third distribution is
symmetric and has no skew (normal
distribution).

Is this data positively or negatively

skewed?

MEASURES OF
VARIATION
Measuring variation in the data
helps us to make sense of it by
understanding how similar or
diverse the scores are.
Range-the gap between the highest and
lowest scores.
Standard Deviation-How much scores
deviate from one another.
Helps us to better see huge outliers in our data and
whether data is closely packed together or spread out.

A lower standard
deviation indicates
that most scores are
close to the mean.

A higher standard
deviation indicates
that most scores are
more spread out.

STANDARD DEVIATION
Large numbers of data such as height, weight,
intelligence, test grades, etc. tend to fall naturally into
a bell-shaped curve. Most cases fall near the mean.
Called a normal curve68% of cases fall within one
standard deviation on either side of the mean. 95% of
cases fall within two standard deviations.

Frequency Distribution: A summary

chart which shows how frequently each of
the various scores in a set of data occur.

Table: Life of AA
batteries, in minutes

Battery
life,
minutes

Frequency
(f)

Relative
frequency

Percent
frequency

360369

0.07

370379

0.10

10

380389

0.17

17

390399

0.23

23

400409

0.17

17

410419

0.13

13

420429

0.10

10

430439

0.03

Histogram: A bar graph depicting a frequency

distribution. The height of the bars indicates the
frequency of a group of scores.

INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
Numerical data that allow one to generalize
from sample data the probability of
something being true of a whole population/
Example: Does breastfeeding really increase IQ, focus, etc.
leading to more academic achievement?
Keep in mind:
1. Representative samples are better than biased ones
Samples would need to come from multiple countries, cultures, and people of
various SES.

2. Less-variable observations are better than those with more variables

Are there huge outliers that could skew our data?

3. More cases are better than too few

Enough said.

STATISTICAL
SIGNIFICANCE
Researchers conduct experiments to find truth.
People question how true data is or whether the results are due
to chance or some fluke.
Statistical significance helps to prove that research is sound and
not randomly skewed by some freak occurrence.
Most often, psychologists look for a probability of 5% or less that
the results are do to chance, which means a 95% chance the
results are "not" due to chance.
When you hear that the results of an experiment were
statistically significant, it means that you can be 95% sure the
results are not due to chance...this is a good thing.