Research Problems

Week 2

SSR3996 Research Project

Discussion Topics
Research

problems
Quantitative research problems
Qualitative research problems

SSR3996 Research Project

Research Problems
One

or more sentences indicating the

goal, purpose, or overall direction of the
study
General characteristics

Implies the possibility of empirical investigation

Identifies a need for the research
Provides focus
Provides a concise overview of the research
SSR3996 Research Project

Research Problems

Two ways of stating the problem

Research problems: typically a rather general overview

of the problem with just enough information about the
scope and purpose of the study to provide an initial
understanding of the research
Research statements and/or questions: more specific,
focused statements and questions that communicate in
greater detail the nature of the study

SSR3996 Research Project

Research Problems

A general research problem

The purpose of this study is to investigate the attitudes of

high school students to mandated drug testing programs

Specific statements and questions

This study examines the differences between males and

females attitudes toward mandated high school drug
testing programs.
What are the differences between freshmen, sophomore,
junior, and senior students attitudes toward mandated high
school drug testing programs?

SSR3996 Research Project

Research Problems

Researchable and non-researchable problems

Researchable problems imply the possibility of

empirical investigation
What are the achievement and social skill differences
between children attending an academically or socially
oriented pre-school program?
What is the relationship between teachers knowledge
of assessment methods and their use of them?

SSR3996 Research Project

Research Problems

Researchable and non-researchable problems

Non-researchable problems include explanations of

how to do something, vague propositions, and valuebased concerns
Is democracy a good form of government?
Should values clarification be taught in public schools?
Can crime be prevented?
Should physical education classes be dropped from the
high school curriculum?

SSR3996 Research Project

Research Problems

Quantitative problems

Specific
Closed
Static
Outcome oriented
Use of specific
variables

Qualitative problems

SSR3996 Research Project

General
Open
Evolving
Process oriented

Research Problems
Sources

Personal interests and experiences

of research problems

The use of formative tests in a statistics class

The use of technology in a research class

Deductions from theory

The effectiveness of math manipulatives

The effectiveness of a mastery approach to learning
research

SSR3996 Research Project

Research Problems
Sources

Replication of studies

of research problems

Checking the findings of a major study

Checking the validity of research findings with different
subjects
Checking trends or changes over time
Checking important findings using different
methodologies

Clarification of contradictory results

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Quantitative Research
Problems

Identifies

three specific elements

The type of research design

The variables of interest and the relationships
between or among these variables
The subjects involved in the study

SSR3996 Research Project

Quantitative Research
Problems
Variables

A variable is a label of name that represents a

concept or characteristic that varies (e.g., gender,
weight, achievement, attitudes toward inclusion,
etc.)
Conceptual and operational definitions of
variables

SSR3996 Research Project

Quantitative Research
Problems

Conceptual and operational definitions of variables

Conceptual (i.e., constitutive) definition: the use of words or

concepts to define a variable
Achievement: what one has learned from formal instruction
Aptitude: ones capability for performing a particular task or skill
Operational definition: an indication of the meaning of a
variable through the specification of the manner by which it is
measured, categorized, or controlled
A test score
Income levels above and below $45,000 per year
The use of holistic or phonetic language instruction

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Quantitative Research
Problems
Three

types of variables defined by the

context within which the variable is
discussed

Independent and dependent variables

Extraneous and confounding variables
Continuous and categorical variables

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Quantitative Research
Problems

Independent and dependent (i.e., cause and effect)

Independent variables act as the cause in that they

precede, influence, and predict the dependent variable
Dependent variables act as the effect in that they change
as a result of being influenced by an independent variable
Examples
The effect of two instructional approaches (independent
variable) on student achievement (dependent variable)
The use of SAT scores (independent variable) to predict
freshman grade point averages (dependent variable)

SSR3996 Research Project

Quantitative Research
Problems

Extraneous and confounding variables

Extraneous variables are those that affect the dependent

variable but are not controlled adequately by the
researcher
Not controlling for the key-boarding skills of students in a
study of computer-assisted instruction
Confounding variables are those that vary systematically
with the independent variable and exert influence of the
dependent variable
Not using counselors with similar levels of experience in a
study comparing the effectiveness of two counseling
approaches
SSR3996 Research Project

Quantitative Research
Problems
Continuous

and categorical variables

Continuous variables are measured on a scale

that theoretically can take on an infinite number of
values

Test scores range from a low of 0 to a high of 100

Attitude scales that range from very negative at 0 to
very positive at 5
Students ages

SSR3996 Research Project

Quantitative Research
Problems

Continuous and categorical variables

Categorical variables are measured and assigned to

groups on the basis of specific characteristics
Examples

Gender: male and female

Socio-economic status: low middle, and high

The term level is used to discuss the groups or

categories

Gender has two levels - male and female

Socio-economic status has three levels - low, middle, and high

SSR3996 Research Project

Quantitative Research
Problems

Continuous and categorical variables

Continuous variables can be converted to categorical

variables, but categorical variables cannot be converted to
continuous variables
IQ is a continuous variable, but the researcher can choose
to group students into three levels based on IQ scores - low
is below a score of 84, middle is between 85 and 115, and
high is above 116
Test scores are continuous, but teachers typically assign
letter grades on a ten point scale (i.e., at or below 59 is an
F, 60 to 69 is a D, 70 to 79 is a C, 80-89 is a B, and 90 to
100 is an A
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Quantitative Research
Problems
Hypotheses

Hypotheses are tentative statements of the

expected relationships between two or more
variables

There is a significant positive relationship between

self-concept and math achievement
The class using math manipulatives will show
significantly higher levels of math achievement than
the class using a traditional algorithm approach

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Quantitative Research
Problems
Reasons

for using hypotheses

To provide specific focus

To provide for the testing of the relationships
between variables
To direct the investigation
To allow the investigator to confirm or not confirm
relationships

SSR3996 Research Project

Quantitative Research
Problems
Reasons

for using hypotheses

To provide a framework for reporting the results

and explanations deriving from them
When supported, provides empirical evidence of
the predictive nature of the relationships between
variables
To provide a useful framework for organizing and
summarizing the results and conclusions

SSR3996 Research Project

Quantitative Research
Problems
Two

types of hypotheses

Inductive and deductive

Inductive hypotheses are formed through inductively

reasoning from many specific observations to
tentative explanations
Deductive hypotheses are formed through deductively
reasoning implications of theory

SSR3996 Research Project

Quantitative Research
Problems

Inductive hypotheses

Students learning of computer programming in the

middle grades increases their development of logical
thinking skills.
Students trained to write summaries of a lecture will
perform better on an immediate posttest on lecture
comprehension than will students who simply take
notes.
After-school tutoring programs increase the
achievement of at-risk students.

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Quantitative Research
Problems

Deductive hypotheses
Theory: Achievement motivation (McClelland, 1953)
People have a tendency to strive for success and to choose
goal-oriented, success/failure activities.
Hypothesis: There is a positive relationship between
achievement motivation and success in school.
Theory: Theory of multiple intelligences (Gardner, 1993)
People have a number of separated intelligences that may
vary in strength.
Hypothesis: Teaching science concepts using a variety of
approaches will result in greater achievement than when
using only linguistic and mathematical approaches.

SSR3996 Research Project

Quantitative Research
Problems

Two types of hypotheses

Research or statistical
Research hypotheses are conjectural statements of the
expected results

Directional
Non-directional

Statistical hypotheses are statements of a relationship or

difference that can be tested statistically

Null hypothesis
Alternative hypothesis

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Quantitative Research
Problems

Research hypotheses

Directional There is positive relationship between IQ and

anxiety in elementary school children.
Non-directional There is a relationship between IQ and
anxiety in children.

Statistical hypotheses

Null hypothesis The mean mastery scores of all students

taught by individual instruction will equal the mean mastery
scores of all those taught by group instruction.
Alternate hypothesis Students taught through individual
instruction will exhibit greater mastery of mathematical
concepts than students taught through group instruction.
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Quantitative Research
Problems

Criteria for evaluating research hypotheses

Stated in declarative form

Consistent with known facts, prior research, or theory
Logical extension of the research problem
States an expected relationship between two or more
variables
Can be tested
Is clear and concise

SSR3996 Research Project

Qualitative Research Problems

Identifies a central phenomena (i.e., an issue or

process) being investigated

Examples of issues
Drug abuse in high schools
Teacher burnout
Alienation of children with special needs
Examples of processes
How teachers change to standards-based curricula
How students react to high stakes testing programs
How students incorporate teachers expectations into their
studies
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Quantitative Research
Problems
Criteria

for evaluating quantitative research

problems

Problem is researchable
Problem is important
Problem should indicate the type of research
Problem specifies the population being
investigated
Problem specifies the variables and the
relationships between or among them
SSR3996 Research Project

Qualitative Research Problems

Characteristics

Includes a single, central phenomena

Open-ended
General in nature
Evolving, that is, problems change as data is collected and
reflected upon
Foreshadowed problems
Emerging and reformulated questions
Neutral with respect to what will be learned
No predictions
No expected outcomes
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Qualitative Research Problems

Criteria for evaluating qualitative research problems

The problem should not be too general or too specific

The problem should be amenable to change as data are
collected and analyzed
The problem should not be biased with restrictive
assumptions or desired findings
The problem should be written in how and what forms to
focus on describing the phenomena
The problem should include a central question as well as
the participants and the site

SSR3996 Research Project