Uses of Portland Cement

Concrete
Buildings
Bridges
Pavements
Concrete block buildings

Other Uses of
Cementitious Materials
Mortar for masonry
Grout (protection, leveling,
bonding, ...)
Shotcrete
Cement board
Soil Stabilization
Railroad ties, countertops, moldings...

Portland Cement History

Egyptian Pyramid of Cheops (3000
B.C.)

First Calcareous Cement (CaO based)

Calcined gypsum

Roman and Greek Projects

First Hydraulic Cements (100 B.C.)

calcined limestone and clay

History of Cement
2000 B.C.: Egyptians
used cement in mortar
when making Pyramids
27 B.C.: Roman
cement made of lime
and volcanic ash
1756: Smeaton rebuilt
Eddystone Lighthouse
1824: Joseph Aspdin
discovered and
patented Portland
cement

Isle of Portland
Quarry Stone
next to a
Cylinder of
Modern
Concrete

Portland Cement History

Rotary Kiln
Ransome (1886), Edison (1909)

Gypsum and Air-Entraining

Admixtures
U.S. (1910-1940)

Cement is a Manufactured
Material
Go Animation

Common Sources for Raw

Materials
Lime (CaO)
- Limestone, shale
Silica (SiO2)
-Clay, sand, shale
Alumina (Al2O3)

- Clay, fly ash, shale

Iron (Fe2O3)
- Clay, iron ore

Portland Cement
Production
5/8 CaO Limestone or
calcareous rock
1/5 SiO2 Clay or argillaceous
rock
1/10 Al2O3
Clay or Ore
1/20

Fe2O3

Clay or Ore

1/20

CaSO4*2H2O Gypsum

Cement Clinker

Shorthand Chemistry
C = CaO

H = H 2O

S = SiO2

S = SO3

A = Al2O3

F = Fe2O3

Clinker: artificial mineral

containing:
C3S tricalcium silicate
C2S dicalcium silicate
C3A tricalcium aluminate
C4AF

tetracalcium aluminoferrite

Clinker Micrographs

Finish Grinding
Interground with
~5% Gypsum
95% material
must pass #325
Sieve

Hydration of Portland
Cement
C3SH4 Calcium Silicate Hydrate
CH

Calcium Hydroxide

Hydration of Portland
Cement
C6AS3H32 Ettringite

stable in SO4-2 solution

from C3A+CSH2

C4ASH12 Monosulfate

unstable in SO4-2
From C6AS3H32 +C3A

C3(A,F)H6 Hydrogarnets

Portland Cement
Properties
Hydraulic
Fineness

90% finer than 45m

Setting Time

Controlled
False Set
Flash Set

Portland Cement
Properties
Soundness

MgO or Hard-Burned Lime

Specific Gravity: 3.15

Heat of Hydration - Exothermic
Reaction

C3 S & C 3 A

LOI
SO3

How are Portland Cements

different?
Four Main Compounds
Tricalcium Silicate (C3S)
Dicalcium Silicate (C2S)
Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A)
Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite (C4AF)

C3 S
Tri Calcium Silicate
3CaO.SiO2 -Alite

Provides Early strength

development
70% reacts by 28 days
Usually present at 40-70%
If >65% difficult to burn

C2 S

Dicalcium Silicate

2CaO.SiO2 -Belite
Provides late strength development
30% reacts by 28 days
Present at 20-40%
Under-burning can result in
C2S contents in cement

higher

C3 A

Tricalcium
Aluminate

3CaO.Al2O3 -Aluminate
Provides heat generated in hydration
(10 to 15 F per 100 lb. cement)
High C3A not as resistant to sulfate
attack
Little contribution to strength

C4AF Tetracalcium
Aluminoferrite
4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 -Ferrite
Governs the color of the cement
Present at 1-10%
Iron facilitates formation of other
compounds-acts as a flux
Little contribution to strength

Hydration
C3S and C2S = ~ 75% of the weight of
Portland Cement
React with Water to form two new
compounds:
Calcium Hydroxide
Calcium Silicate Hydrate (CSH)

Hydration:

C3S + H2O C-S-H +

CH
CH + H2O Ca++ + OH-

Supplementary Cementing
Materials
DEFINITION: Powdered or pulverized
materials added before or during
mixing to improve or change some of
the plastic or hardened properties of
concrete.

Cementitious
Pozzolan
s

Nominally Inert

Cementitious
Materials
Possess hydraulic cementing
properties
GGBF slag (by-product of steel
industry)
Natural cement- Cement Rock
Hydraulic hydrated lime

Pozzolans
Possess no cemetitious value until
finely divided and mixed with
water and cement
Cherts, clays, shales
Fly ash (by-product of coal)
Silica fume (silicon manufacture)

Fly Ash
Class F (low calcium) - from burning
anthracite or bituminous coal, is
pozzolanic
Class C - from burning sub-bituminous
or lignite coal, is somewhat
cementitious

GGBFS (Slag)
Formed when
molten iron blast
furnace slag is
rapidly chilled
(quenched) by
immersion in H2O
Grades 80, 100,
120
Used as a cement
replacement

Silica Fume
Also known as
micro-silica
By-product of the
production of silicon
and ferrosilicon
alloys.
A small part of silica
fume can be used to
replace a large part
of cement

Portland
Cement

Silica
Fume

Types of Cement
(ASTM C150 or AASHTO M85)
Type I
Type II
Sulfate*
Type III
Type IV
Type V

Normal*
Moderate Heat and
High-Early Strength*
Low Heat of Hydration
High Sulfate Resistance

Performance Cements
(ASTM C1157)

Special Types of Cement

Type IP Blended with a Pozzolan*
Type IS Blended with a Slag
Type I-II Meets Type I and II standards*
White Type I or III without Fe
Masonry
Blended Cements with
Lime*
Type K Expansive and Shrinkage
Oil Well Slow-set, high temp. & press.

Water
Municipal

Well
Heated
Steam
Chilled
Ice
Recycled

Questionable Water
Water < 2000 ppm of total dissolved
solids is satisfactory for making
concrete.
Water > 2000 ppm of dissolved solids
should be tested for its effects on
strength and time of set.

Acceptance Criteria for

Questionable Water
LIMITS

ASTM

test
method
_________________________________________
7-day compressive strength,
compared to control
specimens

90%

C-109

_________________________________________

Acceptance Criteria for

Questionable Water
LIMITS

ASTM test
method
_________________________________
Time of set,
minus 60 min.
deviation from
to
191
control specimens plus 90 min.

________________________________

C-

w/cm Ratio Parameters

Aggregate size:
Grading of Aggregate:
Surface texture of aggregate
Shape of aggregate
Cement type and source
Pozzolans
Air Entraining & Chemical Admixtures
Setting Time

The Water - Cement Ratio

Law
For given materials the strength of the concrete (so long
as we have a plastic mix) depends solely on the relative
quantity of water as compared with the cement,
regardless of mix or size and grading of aggregate.
Duff A. Abrams
May 1918

Same cement content

w/cm ratio

CM W
CementitiousMaterial

Fc', MPa

WWater

55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10

350
kg
300
kg
250
kg

0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

5
5
5
5
5
w/cm ratio

Water in Concrete
Increased water:

reduced strength
increased shrinkage and creep
increases permeability
reduced abrasion resistance
reduced Freeze-Thaw resistance

Influence of Aggregates
STRENGTH
Aggregate shape
Aggregate size
Aggregate texture

Influence of Aggregates
DURABILITY
Weathering
Impurities

Concrete Materials
Aggregate is the second most
influential ingredient in concrete.
Aggregate

Occupies 60-75 % of volume

Fine Aggregate is typically 35-45 % of
total aggregate
Mortar (Air, water, cement, fly ash,
sand) is typically 50 - 65 % of total
volume of a mixture

Aggregates in Concrete
Fine: Sand or Crushed Stone (< 5mm)
Coarse: Gravel or Crushed Stone (550 mm)
Aggregate must be washed in many
areas

Granite & other crushed stone

Recycled concrete

All must satisfy ASTM C33

EFFECT OF CHANGING FINENESS

MODULUS ON CONCRETE PROPERTIES
CONCRETE

DECREASING FM

INCREASING

FM

PROPERTY

(FINE SAND)

(COARSE

SAND)
Water Requirements

MORE

Water-Cement Ratio

HIGHER

Strength

LOWER

Finishability

EASY

LESS
LOWER
HIGHER
DIFFICULT

Note: Fineness Modulus: Sum of Cumulative %

Retained/100. The FM should range between 2.3
and 3.1, and not vary more than 0.2 from the
typical value of the aggregate source.

Choosing Aggregate Size

maximum nominal size of aggregate

1/5 smallest dimension

1/3 thickness of slab
3/4 clearance between rebars

Congestion
Shrinkage
Mass Concrete

Concrete Construction
Significance of aggregate grading

smooth grading curve

(sieve size vs. % passing)

more voids will lead to more cement.

undersanded mixes tend to be harsh
large sizes have less surface area

Near Gap-graded Mix (Meets ASTM

C 33)

Optimum Graded Mix

Note: Difficult to compact or pump

Compressive Strength
Strength

fc' (required 28 day compressive strength)

fcr' (actual average 28-day strength of mixture)
fc (compressive strength of concrete)

fcr' is based on field records and laboratory

results

variations
variations
variations
variations

in
in
in
in

materials
mixing times and methods
transportation time and methods
the preparation of test cylinders

Strength (7 day)
I > 19.3 MPa (2800 psi)
II > 17.2 MPa (2500 psi)
III > 24.1 MPa (3500 psi @ 3 days)

Concrete - Fresh Properties

Workability:Ease with which a
concrete can be handled and
placed into forms.

Slump
Kelly Ball
Penetration
Flow Cone

Quality Concrete
A mixture of CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS,
WATER, and AGGREGATES that will meet the
requirements under which it is expected to
serve.

Desired Properties of Fresh

Concrete
Consistency
Workability
Uniformity
Finishability
Low Bleeding

Concrete - Workability
cement: too fine of
material

stickiness
increased water demand

water: too much water

segregation
bleeding

fly ash: increases

flow

aggregate

water: too little water

harshness
compaction problems

ball bearing effect

ionic effect
reduced water demand

rounded particles flow

more easily
Too much sand
stickiness
Poor gradation - harsh

Concrete - Fresh Properties

Pumpability: Ease with which a given mix
can be pumped without segregation or
loss of properties

aggregate: rounded particles pump more

easily
water: too much - segregation, too little friction
cement: too little - blow through,
fly ash: helps prevent segregation, better
flow

Concrete - Fresh Properties

Compactability:
Ease with which a given
mix can be fully compacted to eliminate the
trapped air.

harshness
gradation

Finishability: Ease with which a given mix

can be fully finished with the desired texture

stickiness
harshness

Concrete - Fresh Properties

Setting Time

Cement: different cements have

different setting times
alkalis, sugars, salts, organics
Water: Impurities
-sodium carbonate (Na+) rapid set
-bicarbonate can accelerate or retard set
Aggregate: None

Concrete - Fresh Properties

Bleeding: rate of surface water exceeds
the evaporation rate.

Water:
too much water (severe
bleeding), too little water (surface drying)

Air Content

Water: -too much increases entrapped air

voids
-too little doesn't disperse Air Entraining
Agent properly

Unit Weight

Concrete - Hardened
Properties
Compressive Strength: Measure of
maximum resistance of a concrete
specimen to a compressive axial
load.

minimum 28 days, fc'

actual any time, fc

Compressive Strength
Compressive Strength Uses of Concrete
41 MPa

Highways and Structures

17-24 MPa

Sidewalks and Driveways

> 55 MPa

Prestressed Concrete

> 90 MPa

High Strength Columns

and Beams

Concrete - Hardened
Properties
Strength Gain

Normal strength concrete 7-day fc is

60-70% of the 28-day for Type I
3-day fc is about 50% of the 7 day.
Type III may have 3-day fc of 60-70%
of the 28-day
Moist cured concrete gains faster than
air dried
Steam curing is fastest, but......

Concrete Strength
Tensile Strength: tensile strength
can be estimated by

7.5 fc'
10% of compressive strength

Concrete - Hardened
Properties
Flexural Strength: Measure of
cracking strength.

(pavement and slabs on grade

applications)
Flexural Strength is generally 7.5 - 10
fc'

Shear Strength 20% of

compressive strength

Concrete - Durability
Shrinkage: decrease in volume of
concrete due to loss of water from pore
and capillary structure

the major cause of cracking in concrete

high water content increases shrinkage
high aggregate content decreases shrinkage
moist curing decreases shrinkage

Creep is the time dependent

deformation of concrete under load.

Concrete - Durability
Freeze-Thaw Resistance is the property of
concrete to sustain its strength and surface
properties under repeated F-T cycles.

Air void structure is crucial in obtaining f-t

resistant concrete.
Air entraining agents are the only means of
getting a good air void structure (4-7%
disconnected micro bubbles at uniform spacing)
Low W/C ratio also increases f-t resistance

Concrete - Durability
Sulfate Resistance is the concretes
susceptibility to chemical attack
from external sulfate ions.

ground water or soil are SO4 sources

concrete with low C3A cement and

pozzolans, low permeability, or
protecting it from intrusion.

Concrete - Durability
Scaling Resistance is the concretes
susceptibility to deterioration from
surface chemicals or environments.

chloride salts, bleeding, acids

Permeability: watertightness or ionic

resistance of concrete

Aggregate: poor gradation increases

porosity
Pozzolans: reduce permeability

Concrete - Durability
Abrasion Resistance

essential in floors, pavements and

hydraulic structures.
compressive strength is an important
consideration,
choice of aggregate. (limestone is
not good, gravel is very good)
steel trowelling and moist curing
surface is best

Assignment
Write 1-2 page paper on concrete
related topic with 2 references (one
general, one technical)
e.g. special material considerations for
pumped concrete, concrete sewer pipe,
precast colored wall panels, lightweight
concrete for crash barriers, concrete
design considerations for containment
vessels........

Admixtures
DEFINITION:
Admixtures are any ingredients in concrete
other than:

Water
Aggregates
Cementitious Materials
Fiber Reinforcement
Added to the batch

before or during mixing

Why Use Admixtures?

To Modify fresh concrete properties
decrease water content
increase workability
retard or accelerate setting time
reduce segregation
reduce the rate of slump loss
improve pumpability, placeability, finishability
modify the rate and/or capacity for bleeding

Why Use Admixtures?

To Modify hardened concrete
properties

improve impact and abrasion

resistance
inhibit corrosion of embedded metals
reduce plastic shrinkage cracking
reduce long term drying shrinkage
produce colored concrete
produce cellular concrete

Current Admixture
Standards
Air Entraining
ASTM C 260 in
(M 154)
(AASHTO
Designations
Chemical ASTM C 494 (M 194)
parentheses)

Calcium Chloride ASTM D 98 (M 144)

Foaming Agents ASTM C 869
Admixtures for shotcrete ASTM C 1141
Flowing Concrete ASTM C 1017
Grout Fluidifier ASTM C 937
Pigments ASTM C 979

Air Entrainment
DEFINITION: Air-Entraining Agents are primarily
used to stabilize tiny bubbles generated in concrete
to protect against freezing and thawing cycles.

Chemical
Admixtures
Dispersing Agents

Water Reducers,
Superplasticizers

Accelerators
Retarders

ASTM C 494 Chemical Admixtures

(AASHTO M 194)
Type
Type
Type
Type
Type
Type
Type

A - Water-reducing admixtures
B - Retarding admixtures
C - Accelerating admixtures
D - Water-reducing and retarding
E - Water-reducing and accelerating
F - High range water reducing
G - HRWR and retarding

Water Reducers
DEFINITION: Water Reducers are used for the
purpose of reducing the quantity of mixing water
required to produce a concrete of given consistency.

Accelerators
DEFINITION: Accelerating admixtures are added
to concrete for the purpose of shortening set time
and accelerating early strength development.

Retarders
DEFINITION: Retarding, and Waterreducing and retarding admixtures are
used to offset acceleration and unwanted
effects of high temperature and keep
concrete workable during placement and
consolidation.

Shrinkage Reducing
Admixtures
DEFINITION: Shrinkage Reducing Admixtures
are used to minimize drying shrinkage
cracking in concrete .

Corrosion Inhibitors
DEFINITION: Corrosion Inhibitors are used
to mitigate corrosion of reinforcing steel in
concrete.

ASR Inhibitors
DEFINITION: ASR Inhibitors (primarily
Lithium) are used to mitigate alkalisilica reactivity in concrete.

Specialty Admixtures
Coloring Admixtures
Workability Agents
Bonding Admixtures
Damp-proofing
Admixtures
PermeabilityReducing

Grouting
Gas-forming
Anti-Washout
Foaming
Pumping Aids

The Effectiveness of an
Admixture
Depends on:
Type & Brand
Amount of
Cement
Water Content
Temperature
Aggregate Shape
Proportions
Mixing Time
Consistency of
the Mix
Sequencing

Concrete Mixture PreDesign

Engineer

Architect
Contractor
Concrete Supplier

Define strength,
congestion and
durability properties
Defines color,
texture,
Defines workability,
setting time, ..
Defines aggregates,
cement, fly ash,
admixtures....

Concrete Mixture Design

Discussion of
defined needs
Negotiation on
conflicting needs
Negotiation on
economics

Conflicts defined
Trial Solution
determined

Engineer Accepts
Mixture Proportions

trial batching
trial batching
trial batching

Mixture Design Procedures

Step 1: Choose
Slump
PCA Table 7-7

3 foundations,
footings and slabs
4 beams, columns
& reinforced walls
2 mass concrete
3 Pavements
(add 1 for nonvibrated concrete)

Mixture Design Procedures

Step 2: Select
Aggregate

Local Availability
Large Aggregate
reduces water demand
max size of aggregate

1/5 minimum size of

form dimension
3/4 minimum rebar
spacing
1/3 the slab thickness

Mixture Design Procedures

Step 3: Choose Air
Content
PCA Table 7-6

mild exposure 3-4.5%

non-freezing and nonchemical environment
moderate exposure
4.5-6.0% air
exposed members not
subjected to moisture
saturation & chemicals
severe exposure 5-7%

Mixture Design Procedures

Step 4: Estimate
mixing water
PCA Table 7-6

Step 5: Estimate
w/cm ratio
PCA Tables 7-1,2,3

Lb. Of water per yd3

Function of:
- Slump
- Air
- Max Aggregate
Size
Typically = 0.45

Mixture Design Procedures

Step 6: Choose
Cement
Type

Portland Cement

Types I-V
Generally type I or II

Pozzolans
Fly Ash
Blast Furnace Slag
Silica Fume
* Decrease PC
demand

Mixture Design Procedures

Step 7: Calculate
the cementitious
content

Water Content
CM Content
w / cm

Mixture Design Procedures

Step 8: Estimate
Coarse Aggregate
Content
PCA Table 7-5
Calculate the Coarse
Aggregate
Step 9: Calculate the
Fine Aggregate

Coarse Agg. Factor

(CAF) = % Agg. in
concrete volume
CAF*DRUW*Vconcrete
Affects workability
Vconcrete - Vconstituents

Mixture Design Procedures

Step 10: Admixtures

Air entraining
agent
water reducer
accelerator
retarder
other

Mixture Design Procedures

PCA Procedure is
widely applicable
No first trial is perfect
Initial trial batch

Determine
Adjust mix design
Repeat as necessary

slump, air content

strength