CPE 400 / 600

Computer Communication Networks

Lecture 25
Physical Layer
Ch 3: Data and Signals

Slides are modified from Behrouz A. Forouzan

Lecture 25: Outline

Chapter 3: Data and Signals

3.1 Analog and Digital

3.2 Analog-to-Analog Conversion
3.3 Digital Signals
3.4 Transmission Impairment
3.5 Data-rate Limits
3.6 Performance

Physical layer

To be transmitted,
data must be transformed to electromagnetic signals.

31ANALOGANDDIGITAL
Data can be analog or digital
Analog data refers to information that is continuous
Analog data take on continuous values
Analog signals can have an infinite number of values in a range
Digital data refers to information that has discrete states
Digital data take on discrete values
Digital signals can have only a limited number of values
In data communications, we commonly use
periodic analog signals and nonperiodic digital signals.
4

Comparison of analog and digital signals

32PERIODICANALOGSIGNALS
Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or composite.
A simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave, cannot be
decomposed into simpler signals.
A composite periodic analog signal is composed of multiple
sine waves.

Signal amplitude

Frequency
Frequency is the rate of change with respect to time.

Change in a short span of time means high frequency.

Change over a long span of time means low frequency.

If a signal does not change at all, its frequency is zero

If a signal changes instantaneously, its frequency is infinite.

Frequency and Period

Frequency and period are the inverse of each other.

Units of period and frequency

Two signals with the same amplitude,

but different frequencies

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Examples
The power we use at home has a frequency of 60 Hz. What is the period of
this sine wave ?

The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is its frequency in kilohertz?

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Phase
Phase describes the position of the waveform
relative to time 0
Three sine waves with the same amplitude and frequency,
but different phases

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Example
A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect to time 0. What is its phase in
degrees and radians?

Solution
We know that 1 complete cycle is 360. Therefore, 1/6 cycle is

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Wavelength and period

Wavelength = Propagation speed x Period

= Propagation speed / Frequency

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Time-domain and frequency-domain plots of a sine wave

A complete sine wave in the time domain can be
represented by one single spike in the frequency domain.

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Frequency Domain

The frequency domain is more compact and useful when we are

dealing with more than one sine wave.
A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in data communication
o We need to send a composite signal, a signal made of many simple
sine waves.

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Fourier analysis
According to Fourier analysis,
any composite signal is a combination of simple sine
waves with different frequencies, amplitudes, and phases.

If the composite signal is periodic, the decomposition

gives a series of signals with discrete frequencies;
If the composite signal is nonperiodic, the decomposition
gives a combination of sine waves with continuous frequencies.

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A composite periodic signal

Decomposition of the
composite periodic
signal in the time and
frequency domains

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Time and frequency domains of a nonperiodic signal

A nonperiodic composite signal
o It can be a signal created by a microphone or a telephone set
when a word or two is pronounced.
o In this case, the composite signal cannot be periodic
because that implies that we are repeating the same word or words
with exactly the same tone.

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Bandwidth
The bandwidth of a composite signal is
the difference between the highest and the lowest
frequencies contained in that signal.

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Example
A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz,
with a middle frequency of 140 kHz and peak amplitude of 20 V.
The two extreme frequencies have an amplitude of 0. Draw the
frequency domain of the signal.
Solution
The lowest frequency must be at 40 kHz and the highest at
240 kHz.

21

Lecture 25: Outline

Chapter 3: Data and Signals

3.1 Analog and Digital

3.2 Analog-to-Analog Conversion
3.3 Digital Signals
3.4 Transmission Impairment
3.5 Data-rate Limits
3.6 Performance

22

33DIGITALSIGNALS
In addition to being represented by an analog signal,
information can also be represented by a digital signal.
For example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage
and a 0 as zero voltage.
A digital signal can have more than two levels.
In this case, we can send more than 1 bit for each level.

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Two digital signals: one with two signal levels and

the other with four signal levels

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Examples
A digital signal has 8 levels. How many bits are needed per
level?
We calculate the number of bits from the formula
Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.
A digital signal has 9 levels. How many bits are needed per
level?
Each signal level is represented by 3.17 bits.
The number of bits sent per level needs to be an integer
as well as a power of 2.
Hence, 4 bits can represent one level.
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Examples
Assume we need to download files at a rate of 100 pages
per minute. A page is an average of 24 lines with 80
characters in each line where one character requires 8
bits. What is the required bit rate of the channel?

A digitized voice channel is made by digitizing a 4-kHz

bandwidth analog voice signal. We need to sample the
signal at twice the highest frequency (two samples per
hertz). Assume that each sample requires 8 bits.
What is the required bit rate?
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Example
HDTV uses digital signals to broadcast high quality video
signals. There are 1920 by 1080 pixels per screen, and the
screen is renewed 30 times per second. Also, 24 bits
represents one color pixel.
What is the bit rate for high-definition TV (HDTV)?

The TV stations reduce this rate to 20 to 40 Mbps

through compression.
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The time and frequency domains of periodic and

nonperiodic digital signals

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Baseband transmission

A digital signal is a composite analog signal with an infinite

bandwidth.

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Bandwidths of two low-pass channels

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Baseband transmission using a dedicated medium

Baseband transmission of a digital signal that preserves

the shape of the digital signal is possible only if we have a
low-pass channel with an infinite or very wide bandwidth.
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Example
An example of a dedicated channel where the entire
bandwidth of the medium is used as one single channel is
a LAN.
Almost every wired LAN today uses a dedicated channel
for two stations communicating with each other.
In a bus topology LAN with multipoint connections, only
two stations can communicate with each other at each
moment in time (timesharing); the other stations need to
refrain from sending data.
In a star topology LAN, the entire channel between each
station and the hub is used for communication between
these two entities.
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Rough approximation of a digital signal using

the first harmonic for worst case

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Simulating a digital signal with first three harmonics

34

In baseband transmission, the required bandwidth is

proportional to the bit rate;
if we need to send bits faster, we need more bandwidth.

Bandwidth requirements

35

Example
What is the required bandwidth of a low-pass channel if we
need to send 1 Mbps by using baseband transmission?
Solution
The answer depends on the accuracy desired.
a. The minimum bandwidth, is B = bit rate /2, or 500 kHz.
b. A better solution is to use the first and the third
harmonics with B = 3 500 kHz = 1.5 MHz.
c. Still a better solution is to use the first, third, and fifth
harmonics with B = 5 500 kHz = 2.5 MHz.
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Example
We have a low-pass channel with bandwidth 100 kHz.
What is the maximum bit rate of this channel?
Solution
The maximum bit rate can be achieved if we use the first
harmonic. The bit rate is 2 times the available bandwidth,
or 200 kbps.

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Bandwidth of a bandpass channel

If the available channel is a bandpass channel,

we cannot send the digital signal directly to the channel;
we need to convert the digital signal to an analog signal
before transmission.
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Modulation of a digital signal for transmission

on a bandpass channel

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Example
An example of broadband transmission using modulation is
the sending of computer data through a telephone
subscriber line, the line connecting a resident to the
central telephone office.
These lines are designed to carry voice with a limited
bandwidth.
The channel is considered a bandpass channel.
We convert the digital signal from the computer to an
analog signal, and send the analog signal.
We can install two converters to change the digital signal
to analog and vice versa at the receiving end.
The converter, in this case, is called a modem.
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Example
A second example is the digital cellular telephone.
For better reception, digital cellular phones convert the
analog voice signal to a digital signal.
Although the bandwidth allocated to a company providing
digital cellular phone service is very wide, we still cannot
send the digital signal without conversion.
The reason is that we only have a bandpass channel
available between caller and callee.
We need to convert the digitized voice to a composite
analog signal before sending.
41

Lecture 25: Outline

Chapter 3: Data and Signals

3.1 Analog and Digital

3.2 Analog-to-Analog Conversion
3.3 Digital Signals
3.4 Transmission Impairment
3.5 Data-rate Limits
3.6 Performance

42

34TRANSMISSIONIMPAIRMENT
Signals travel through transmission media, which are
not perfect.
The imperfection causes signal impairment.
This means that the signal at the beginning of the
medium is not the same as the signal at the end of the
medium.
What is sent is not what is received.
Three causes of impairment are attenuation,
distortion, and noise.

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Attenuation

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Example
Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium
and its power is reduced to one-half.
This means that P2 is (1/2)P1.
In this case, the attenuation (loss of power) can be
calculated as

A loss of 3 dB (3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half the

power.
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Example
A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is
increased 10 times.
This means that P2 = 10P1 .
What is the amplification (gain of power)?

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Example
One reason that engineers use the decibel to measure the
changes in the strength of a signal is that decibel
numbers can be added (or subtracted) when we are
measuring several points (cascading) instead of just two.
A signal travels from point 1 to point 4.

In this case, the decibel value can be calculated as

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Distortion

50

Noise

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Example
The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the
noise is 1 W; what are the values of SNR and SNR dB ?
Solution
The values of SNR and SNRdB can be calculated as
follows:

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Two cases of SNR: a high SNR and a low SNR

53

Example
The values of SNR and SNRdB for a noiseless channel are

We can never achieve this ratio in real life; it is an ideal.

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Lecture 25: Outline

Chapter 3: Data and Signals

3.1 Analog and Digital

3.2 Analog-to-Analog Conversion
3.3 Digital Signals
3.4 Transmission Impairment
3.5 Data-rate Limits
3.6 Performance

55

35DATARATELIMITS
A very important consideration in data communications is
how fast we can send data, in bits per second, over a
channel.
Data rate depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)

Increasing the levels of a signal may reduce the reliability

of the system.
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Nyquist Theorem
For noiseless channel,
BitRate = 2 x Bandwith x log2Levels

In baseband transmission, we said the bit rate is 2 times

the bandwidth if we use only the first harmonic in the
worst case.
However, the Nyquist formula is more general than what
we derived intuitively; it can be applied to baseband
transmission and modulation.
Also, it can be applied when we have two or more levels of
signals.
57

Examples
Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz
transmitting a signal with two signal levels. What is the
maximum bit rate?

Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting a signal

with four signal levels (for each level, we send 2 bits).
What is the maximum bit rate?

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Example
We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with a
bandwidth of 20 kHz. How many signal levels do we need?
Solution
We can use the Nyquist formula as

Since this result is not a power of 2, we need to either

increase the number of levels or reduce the bit rate.
If we have 128 levels, the bit rate is 280 kbps.
If we have 64 levels, the bit rate is 240 kbps.
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Shannon Capacity
In reality, we can not have a noisless channel
For noisy channel,
Capacity = Bandwith x log2(1+SNR)

The Shannon capacity gives us the upper limit;

the Nyquist formula tells us how many signal levels we need.

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Example
Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of
the signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero.
In other words, the noise is so strong that the signal is
faint. What is the channel capacity?
Solution

This means that the capacity of this channel is zero

regardless of the bandwidth.
In other words, we cannot receive any data through this
channel.
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Example
Lets calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a regular
telephone line. A telephone line normally has a bandwidth
of 3000. The signal-to-noise ratio is usually 3162.
What is the channel capacity?
Solution

This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line
is 34.860 kbps.
If we want to send data faster than this, we can either
increase the bandwidth of the line or improve the signalto-noise ratio.

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Example
For practical purposes, when the SNR is very high, we can
assume that SNR + 1 is almost the same as SNR.
In these cases, the theoretical channel capacity can be
simplifiedto

For example, we can calculate the theoretical capacity of

the previous example as

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Example
We have a channel with a 1-MHz bandwidth. The SNR for
this channel is 63.
What are the appropriate bit rate and signal level?
Solution
First, we use the Shannon formula to find the upper limit.

The Shannon formula gives us 6 Mbps, the upper limit. For

better performance we choose something lower, 4 Mbps,
for example.
Then we use the Nyquist formula to find the number of
signal levels.
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Lecture 25: Outline

Chapter 3: Data and Signals

3.1 Analog and Digital

3.2 Analog-to-Analog Conversion
3.3 Digital Signals
3.4 Transmission Impairment
3.5 Data-rate Limits
3.6 Performance

66

36PERFORMANCE
One important issue in networking is the performance of
the networkhow good is it?

In networking, we use the term bandwidth in two contexts

The first, bandwidth in hertz,
refers to the range of frequencies in a composite signal or
the range of frequencies that a channel can pass.
The second, bandwidth in bits per second,
refers to the speed of bit transmission in a channel or link.
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Examples
The bandwidth of a subscriber line is 4 kHz for voice
or data.
The bandwidth of this line for data transmission
can be up to 56,000 bps using a sophisticated modem
to change the digital signal to analog.

If the telephone company improves the quality of the

line and increases the bandwidth to 8 kHz,
we can send 112,000 bps.

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Example
A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an
average of 12,000 frames per minute with each frame
carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is the
throughput of this network?
Solution
We can calculate the throughput as

The throughput is almost one-fifth of the bandwidth in

this case.
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Example
What is the propagation time if the distance between the
two points is 12,000 km? Assume the propagation speed to
be 2.4 108 m/s in cable.
Solution
We can calculate the propagation time as

The example shows that a bit can go over the Atlantic

Ocean in only 50 ms if there is a direct cable between the
source and the destination.
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Example
What are the propagation time and the transmission time
for a 2.5-kbyte message if the bandwidth of the network
is 1 Gbps? Assume that the distance is 12,000 km and that
light travels at 2.4 108 m/s.
Solution

Note that in this case, because the message is short and

the bandwidth is high, the dominant factor is the
propagation time, not the transmission time.
The transmission time can be ignored.

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Example
What are the propagation time and the transmission time
for a 5-Mbyte message if the bandwidth of the network is
1 Mbps? Assume that the distance is 12,000 km and that
light travels at 2.4 108 m/s.
Solution

Note that in this case, because the message is very long

and the bandwidth is not very high, the dominant factor is
the transmission time, not the propagation time.
The propagation time can be ignored.
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Concept of bandwidth-delay product

The bandwidth-delay product defines the number of bits
that can fill the link.

We can think about the link between two points as a pipe.

The cross section of the pipe represents the bandwidth,
and the length of the pipe represents the delay.
We can say the volume of the pipe defines the
bandwidth-delay product.

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Filling the link with bits in case 1

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Filling the link with bits in case 2

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