Introduction to ROBOTICS

Robot Sensing and Sensors

Brief Review
(Mobot Locomotion)

Mobile Robot Locomotion

Locomotion: the process of causing a robot to move

Differential Drive

Tricycle

Synchronous Drive

Ackerman Steering

Swedish Wheel

Omni-directional

Differential Drive
Property: At each time instant, the left and right wheels must
follow a trajectory that moves around the ICC at the same
angular rate , i.e.,
L
L

( R ) VR
2

( R ) VL
2

Kinematic equation

90

Nonholonomic Constraint

sin

x
cos x sin y cos 0
y

Differential Drive
Basic Motion Control

R : Radius of rotation

Straight motion
R = Infinity

V R = VL

Rotational motion
R= 0

VR = -VL

Tricycle
Steering and power are provided through the front wheel
control variables:
angular velocity of steering wheel ws(t)
steering direction (t)

d: distance from the front wheel to the rear axle

Tricycle
Kinematics model in the world frame
---Posture kinematics model

Synchronous Drive
All the wheels turn
in unison
All wheels point in the
same direction and turn
at the same rate
Two independent
motors, one rolls all
wheels forward, one
rotate them for turning

Control variables
(independent)
v(t), (t)

Ackerman Steering (Car Drive)

The Ackerman Steering equation:
:

d
cot i cot o
l

cos
cot
sin

cot i cot o
Rd /2 Rd /2

l
l
d

l
R

Car-like Robot
Driving type: Rear wheel drive, front wheel steering

R u1

u1
tan

ICC

x u1 cos
y u1 sin

non-holonomic constraint:

x sin y cos 0

Rear wheel drive car model:

u1

tan
l
u2

x, y

u1
u2

: forward velocity of the rear wheels

: angular velocity of the steering wheels

l : length between the front and rear

wheels

Robot Sensing and Sensors

References
Sensors for mobile robots: theory and
applications, H. R. Everett, A. K. Peters
Ltd, C1995, ISBN: 1-56881-048-2
Handbook of Modern Sensors: Physics,
Designs and Applications, 2nd edition,
Jacob Fraden, AIP Press/Springer, 1996.
ISBN 1-56396-538-0.

Some websites

http://www.omega.com/ (sensors + hand-helds)

http://www.extech.com/ (hand-helds)
http://www.agilent.com/ (instruments, enormous)
http://www.keithley.com/ (instruments, big)
http://www.tegam.com/ (instruments, small)
http://www.edsci.com/ (optics ++)
http://www.pacific.net/~brooke/Sensors.html
(comprehensive listing of sensors etc. and links)

What is Sensing ?
Collect information about the world
Sensor - an electrical/mechanical/chemical
device that maps an environmental attribute to a
quantitative measurement
Each sensor is based on a transduction
principle - conversion of energy from one form
to another

Human sensing and organs

Vision: eyes (optics, light)

Hearing: ears (acoustics, sound)
Touch: skin (mechanics, heat)
Odor: nose (vapor-phase chemistry)
Taste: tongue (liquid-phase chemistry)
Counterpart?

Extended ranges and modalities

Vision outside the RGB spectrum
Infrared Camera, see at night

Active vision
Radar and optical (laser) range measurement

Hearing outside the 20 Hz 20 kHz range

Ultrasonic range measurement

Chemical analysis beyond taste and smell

Radiation: , , -rays, neutrons, etc

Transduction to electronics

Thermistor: temperature-to-resistance
Electrochemical: chemistry-to-voltage
Photocurrent: light intensity-to-current
Pyroelectric: thermal radiation-to-voltage
Humidity: humidity-to-capacitance
Length (LVDT: Linear variable differential
transformers) : position-to-inductance
Microphone: sound pressure-to-<anything>

Sensor Fusion and Integration

Human: One organ one sense?
Not necessarily
Balance: ears
Touch: tongue
Temperature: skin

Robot:
Sensor fusion:
Combine readings from several sensors into a (uniform)
data structure

Sensor integration:
Use information from several sensors to do something
useful

Sensor Fusion
One sensor is (usually) not enough
Real sensors are noisy
Limited Accuracy
Unreliable - Failure/redundancy
Limited point of view of the environment
Return an incomplete description of the
environment

The sensor of choice may be expensive might be cheaper to combine two inexpensive
sensors

General Processing
Sensor

Preprocessing

Sensor

Preprocessing

Sensor

Preprocessing

Sens
or

Preprocessing

Sensing

Fusion

Interpretation

Perception

Preprocessing
Colloquially - cleanup the sensor readings
before using them

Noise reduction - filtering

Re-calibration
Basic stuff - e.g. edge detection in vision
Usually unique to each sensor
Change (transform) data representation

Sensor/Data Fusion
Combine data from different sources
measurements from different sensors
measurements from different positions
measurements from different times

Often a mathematical technique that takes into

account uncertainties in data sources
Discrete Bayesian methods
Neural networks
Kalman filtering

Produces a merged data set (as though there

was one virtual sensor)

Interpretation
Task specific
Often modeled as a best fit problem given
some a priori knowledge about the
environment
Tricky

Classification of Sensors
Internal state (proprioception) v.s. external state
(exteroceptive)
feedback of robot internal parameters, e.g. battery
level, wheel position, joint angle, etc,
observation of environments, objects

Active v.s. non-active

emitting energy into the environment, e.g., radar,

sonar
passively receive energy to make observation, e.g.,
camera

Contact v.s. non-contact

Visual v.s. non-visual

vision-based sensing, image processing, video

camera

Proprioceptive Sensors
Encoders, Potentiometers
measure angle of turn via change in
resistance or by counting optical pulses

Gyroscopes
measure rate of change of angles
fiber-optic (newer, better), magnetic (older)

Compass
measure which way is north

GPS: measure location relative to globe

Touch Sensors
Whiskers, bumpers etc.
mechanical contact leads to

closing/opening of a switch
change in resistance of some element
change in capacitance of some element
change in spring tension
...

Sensors Based on Sound

SONAR: Sound Navigation and Ranging
bounce sound off of objects
measure time for reflection to be heard - gives
a range measurement
measure change in frequency - gives the
relative speed of the object (Doppler effect)
bats and dolphins use it with amazing results
robots use it w/ less than amazing results

Electromagnetic Spectrum
Visible Spectrum
700 nm

400 nm

Sensors Based on EM Spectrum

Radio and Microwave
RADAR: Radio Detection and Ranging
Microwave radar: insensitive to clouds

Coherent light
all photons have same phase and wavelength
LASER: Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation
LASER RADAR: LADAR - accurate ranging

Sensors Based on EM Spectrum

Light sensitive
eyes, cameras, photocells etc.
Operating principle
CCD - charge coupled devices
photoelectric effect

IR sensitive
Local Proximity Sensing
Infrared LEDs (cheap, active sensing)
usually low resolution - normally used for presence/absence
of obstacles rather than ranging, operate over small range

Sense heat differences and construct images

Human detection sensors
night vision application

Sensors Used in Robot

Gas Sensor
Gyro

Accelerometer

Pendulum Resistive
Tilt Sensors

Metal Detector
Piezo Bend Sensor

Gieger-Muller
Radiation Sensor
Pyroelectric Detector
UV Detector

Resistive Bend Sensors

Digital Infrared Ranging

CDS Cell
Resistive Light Sensor

Pressure Switch
Miniature Polaroid Sensor
Limit Switch

Touch Switch
Mechanical Tilt Sensors

IR Pin
Diode

IR Sensor w/lens

Thyristor

IR Reflection
Sensor

Magnetic Sensor

Magnetic Reed Switch

IR Amplifier Sensor

Hall Effect
Magnetic Field
Sensors

Polaroid Sensor Board

IRDA Transceiver

Lite-On IR
Remote Receiver

Radio Shack
Remote Receiver

IR Modulator
Receiver

Solar Cell
Compass

Compass

Piezo Ultrasonic Transducers

Sensors Used in Robot

Resistive sensors
bend sensors, potentiometer, resistive photocells, ...

Tactile sensors
contact switch, bumpers

Infrared sensors
Reflective, proximity, distance sensors

Ultrasonic Distance Sensor

Inertial Sensors (measure the second derivatives of position)
Accelerometer, Gyroscopes,

Orientation Sensors
Compass, Inclinometer

Laser range sensors

Vision, GPS,

Resistive Sensors

Resistive Sensors
Bend Sensors
Resistance = 10k to 35k
As the strip is bent, resistance increases

Resistive Bend Sensor

Potentiometers
Can be used as position sensors for sliding
mechanisms or rotating shafts
Easy to find, easy to mount

Potentiometer

Light Sensor (Photocell)

Good for detecting direction/presence of
light
Non-linear resistance
Slow response to light changes

Photocell
R is small when brightly illuminated

Applications
Sensor

Measure bend of a joint

Sensors

Wall Following/Collision
Detection
Sensor

Weight Sensor

Inputs for Resistive Sensors

V

Voltage divider:

R1

You have two resisters, one

is fixed and the other varies,
as well as a constant voltage

Vsense

R2
V
R1 R2

Vsense
R2

A/D converter
micro

+
-

Binary
Threshold

Digital I/O

Comparator:
If voltage at + is greater than at -,
digital high out

Infrared Sensors

Intensity based infrared

Reflective sensors
Easy to implement
susceptible to ambient light

Modulated Infrared
Proximity sensors
Requires modulated IR signal
Insensitive to ambient light

Infrared Ranging
Distance sensors
Short range distance measurement
Impervious to ambient light, color and reflectivity of object

Intensity Based Infrared

Break-Beam sensor

Reflective Sensor
voltage

Increase in ambient light

raises DC bias

time
voltage

Easy to implement (few components)

Works very well in controlled environments
Sensitive to ambient light

time

IR Reflective Sensors
Reflective Sensor:
Emitter IR LED + detector photodiode/phototransistor
Phototransistor: the more light reaching the phototransistor, the
more current passes through it
A beam of light is reflected off a surface and into a detector
Light usually in infrared spectrum, IR light is invisible

Applications:
Object detection,
Line following, Wall tracking
Optical encoder (Break-Beam sensor)

Drawbacks:
Susceptible to ambient lighting
Provide sheath to insulate the device from outside lighting

Susceptible to reflectivity of objects

Susceptible to the distance between sensor and the object

Modulated Infrared
Modulation and Demodulation
Flashing a light source at a particular frequency
Demodulator is tuned to the specific frequency of light flashes.
(32kHz~45kHz)
Flashes of light can be detected even if they are very week
Less susceptible to ambient lighting and reflectivity of objects
Used in most IR remote control units, proximity sensors

Negative true logic:

Detect = 0v
No detect = 5v

IR Proximity Sensors
amplifier

bandpass filter
integrator
limiter
demodulator
comparator

Proximity Sensors:
Requires a modulated IR LED, a detector module with built-in modulation
decoder
Current through the IR LED should be limited: adding a series resistor in LED
driver circuit
Detection range: varies with different objects (shiny white card vs. dull black
object)
Insensitive to ambient light

Applications:
Rough distance measurement
Obstacle avoidance
Wall following, line following

IR Distance Sensors
Basic principle of operation:
IR emitter + focusing lens + position-sensitive detector

Modulated IR light

Location of the spot on the detector corresponds to

the distance to the target surface, Optics to covert
horizontal distance to vertical distance

IR Distance Sensors
Sharp GP2D02 IR Ranger

Distance range: 10cm (4") ~ 80cm (30").

Moderately reliable for distance measurement
Immune to ambient light
Impervious to color and reflectivity of object
Applications: distance measurement, wall following,

Basic Navigation Techniques

Relative Positioning (called Dead-reckoning)
Information

required: incremental (internal)

Velocity
heading

With this technique the position can be updated with

respect to a starting point
Problems: unbounded accumulation error

Absolute Positioning
Information Required:

absolute (external)
Absolute references (wall, corner, landmark)
Methods

Magnetic Compasses (absolute heading, earths magnetic field)

Active Beacons
Global Positioning Systems (GPS)
Landmark Navigation (absolute references: wall, corner, artificial
landmark)
Map-based positioning

Dead Reckoning
Cause of unbounded accumulation error:
Systematic Errors:
a) Unequal wheel diameters
b) Average of both wheel diameters
differs from nominal diameter
c) Misalignment of wheels
d) Limited encoder resolution,
sampling rate,

Nonsystematic Errors:
a) Travel over uneven floors
b) Travel over unexpected objects on
the floor
c) Wheel-slippage due to : slippery
floors; over-acceleration, fast
turning (skidding), non-point wheel
contact with the floor

Sensors used in navigation

Dead Reckoning

External Sensors

Odometry (monitoring the

wheel revolution to compute the

offset from a known starting
position)

Encoders,
Potentiometer,
Tachometer,

Inertial Sensors (measure

the second derivative of position)
Gyroscopes,
Accelerometer,

Compass
Ultrasonic
Laser range sensors
Radar
Vision
Global Positioning
System (GPS)

Motor Encoder

Incremental Optical Encoders

Incremental Encoder:
lightsensor

lightemitter

decode
circuitry

- direction
- resolution

grating

It generates pulses proportional to the rotation speed of the

shaft.
Direction can also be indicated with a two phase encoder:
A

A leads B

AbsoluteOpticalEncoders
Used when loss of reference is not possible.
Gray codes: only one bit changes at a time ( less uncertainty).
The information is transferred in parallel form (many wires are necessary).
Binary

Gray Code

000

000

001

001

010

011

011

010

100

110

101

111

110

101

111

100

OtherOdometrySensors
Resolver
It has two stator windings positioned
at 90 degrees. The output voltage is
proportional to the sine or cosine
function of the rotor's angle. The
rotor is made up of a third winding,
winding C

Potentiometer
=varying
resistance

Range Finder
(Ultrasonic, Laser)

Range Finder
Time of Flight
The measured pulses typically come form
ultrasonic, RF and optical energy sources.
D=v*t
D = round-trip distance
v = speed of wave propagation
t = elapsed time

Sound = 0.3 meters/msec

RF/light = 0.3 meters / ns (Very difficult to measure
short distances 1-100 meters)

Ultrasonic Sensors
Basic principle of operation:
Emit a quick burst of ultrasound (50kHz), (human hearing: 20Hz to
20kHz)
Measure the elapsed time until the receiver indicates that an echo is
detected.
Determine how far away the nearest object is from the sensor

D=v*t
D = round-trip distance
v = speed of propagation(340 m/s)
t = elapsed time

Bat, dolphin,

Ultrasonic Sensors

Ranging is accurate but bearing has a 30 degree

uncertainty. The object can be located anywhere in the arc.
Typical ranges are of the order of several centimeters to 30
meters.
Another problem is the propagation time. The ultrasonic
signal will take 200 msec to travel 60 meters. ( 30 meters
roundtrip @ 340 m/s )

Polaroid Ultrasonic Sensors

It was developed for an automatic
camera focusing system
Range: 6 inches to 35 feet

Transducer Ringing:
transmitter + receiver @ 50 KHz
Residual vibrations or ringing may
be interpreted as the echo signal
Blanking signal to block any return
signals for the first 2.38ms after
transmission

Electronic board

Ultrasonic
transducer

http://www.acroname.com/robotics/info/articles/sonar/sonar.html

Operation with Polaroid Ultrasonic

The Electronic board supplied has the following I/0

INIT : trigger the sensor, ( 16 pulses are transmitted )

BLANKING : goes high to avoid detection of own signal
ECHO : echo was detected.
BINH : goes high to end the blanking (reduce blanking time < 2.38
ms)
BLNK : to be generated if multiple echo is required

Ultrasonic Sensors
Applications:
Distance Measurement
Mapping: Rotating proximity scans (maps the
proximity of objects surrounding the robot)

Scanning at an angle of 15 apart can achieve best results

Noise Issues

Laser Ranger Finder

Range 2-500 meters

Resolution : 10 mm
Field of view : 100 - 180 degrees
Angular resolution : 0.25 degrees
Scan time : 13 - 40 msec.
These lasers are more immune to Dust and Fog

http://www.sick.de/de/products/categories/safety/

Inertial Sensors
Gyroscopes
Measure the rate of rotation independent of the
coordinate frame
Common applications:
Heading sensors, Full Inertial Navigation systems (INS)

Accelerometers
Measure accelerations with respect to an inertial frame
Common applications:
Tilt sensor in static applications, Vibration Analysis, Full INS
Systems

Accelerometers
They measure the inertia force generated
when a mass is affected by a change in
velocity.
This force may change
The tension of a string
The deflection of a beam
The vibrating frequency of a mass

Accelerometer

Main elements of an accelerometer:

1.

Mass

2. Suspension mechanism

3. Sensing element

d x
dx
F m 2 c kx
d t
dt

High quality accelerometers include a servo loop to improve the linearity of the
sensor.

Gyroscopes
These devices return a signal proportional to the
rotational velocity.
There is a large variety of gyroscopes that are
based on different principles

Global Positioning System (GPS)

24 satellites (+several spares)
broadcast time, identity, orbital
parameters (latitude, longitude,
altitude)
Space Segment

http://www.cnde.iastate.edu/staff/swormley/gps/gps.html

Noise Issues
Real sensors are noisy
Origins: natural phenomena + less-thanideal engineering
Consequences: limited accuracy and
precision of measurements
Filtering:
software: averaging, signal processing
algorithm
hardware tricky: capacitor