Julie Ann A.

Analista
February 2014

branch of knowledge
( singular)

Physical abuse experienced by the victims includes physical

assault such as beating, boxing, slapping and hitting. It often
leaves mark on the victims body which when visible produces
psychological effect. One key informant revealed that when
her husband gets drunk, he would beat her. To avoid
embarrassment the following day, she would put on thicker
make up to hide the bruises. To avoid embarrassment, she
avoids people, even her closest friends. She further explains
that if my husband beats me, I stay at home the following
day and refuse to see people, because I am ashamed if
someone notices my bruises, I would say that these were
caused by a fall or some other causes.

Data can be better appreciated and

effectively used when they have been
analyzed and interpreted.

Analysis enables the researcher to interpret

the results of a study and answer the
research questions.

Data analysis is a process of summarizing

trends and patterns observed in the data,
determining major differentials, or
relationship among variables used in the
study and the application of appropriate
statistical tests on a set of data to answer
the problem.

 The problem
Number of groups
The Kind of scales of measurement of the
data or variables being dealt with

Is the process of explaining the meaning of

a data in a table with emphasis in the
highlights and trends shown by the data.

It further explains the meaning of the data

and relates the findings to result of related
studies to the theoretical framework or
conceptual framework.

Nominal Data
Ordinal Data
Interval Data
Ratio

Nominal Data

Has no mathematical
value
Also called a categorical
scale
Numbers are assigned to
categories of nominal data
variables to facilitate data
processing.

Examples:
Sex, color and civil status

Ordinal Data

Measure in which data

or categories of a
variable or ordered or
ranked into two or
more levels or degree,
such as from low to
high or least to most.

Examples:
Degree of malnutrition, hororoll, level of
anger

Interval Data

Has a characteristic of
an ordinal scale but in
addition, the distances
between points in the
interval scale is equal
but there is no zero
point or it may be
arbitrary.

Examples:
Body temperature in farenheit, business
capital

Ratio Data

Almost like the

interval scale except
that the zero scale has
a real zero point

Examples:
Monthly income, number of children,
hours spent in studying

THE UNIVERSE OF DATA

Description and Inference

Is used to describe the nature and

characteristic of an event or a population
under investigation.

It is used to describe the characteristic of a

variable or a set of data and/or the variance
within the data.

Characteristics
1. An interval estimate
2. A calculated average for all
items
3. Affected by extreme values
4. Sum of deviations about
the mean is zero
5. Subject to numerous
mathematical
computations
6. Most widely used
7. Represents average
quantity

When to Use
1. An interval
interpretation is
appropriate
2. The values of each
score is desired
3. Further statistical
computation is
expected

Characteristics
1. An ordinal statistics
2. A rank or position average
3. Not affected by extreme
values
4. Absolute differences from
median, the sum of these
differences is at a
minimum
5. Represents typical score

When to Use
1. An ordinal
interpretation is
needed
2. The middle value is
desired
3. Avoid influence of
extreme values

Characteristics
1. A nominal statistic
2. An inspection average
3. Usually occurs near
the center of the
distribution
4. Some distribution
have more than one
mode
5. Most popular value

When to Use
1. A nominal
interpretation is
needed
2. A quick approximation
of central tendency is
desired
3. The most frequently
occurring value is
needed

Range

Simple measure of
variation calculated
as the highes value
in the distribution,
minus the lowest
value plus one

Range = HV-LV+1

Standard Deviation

Gives the average of

the distances of
individual observation
from the group mean,
the square root of the
average squared
deviation of each case
from the mean

Steps involved in calculating SD:

1. Calculate

the mean of the distribution

2. Subtract the mean from each score
3. Square each of these scores
4. Divide the sum of the squared scores by the
number of scores. The result is called the
variance.
5. Take the square root of the variance. The
result is the SD.

Hypothesis

testing

Hypothesis testing
Hypothesis

testing is an area of
statistical inference in which one
evaluates a conjecture about some
characteristic of the parent
population based upon the
information contained in the random
sample

hypothesis is a claim or
statement about the
population parameter

Null Hypothesis

denoted by Ho
the statement being tested
it represents what the
experimenter doubts to be
true
must contain the condition
of equality and must be
written with the symbol =

Alternative
Hypothesis
denoted by Ha
Opposite of Ho

Can be stated in only one

of three possible forms
Ha: some value
Ha:
> some value
Ha:
< some value

1. Identify the variables( key concept/dependent

variables, independent variables )
2. State the problem( significance of the
difference/relationship)
3. State hypothesis(Ho and Ha)
4. Decide on a level of significance, (=.05/.01)
5. Determine statistical tool
6. decision Rule( Reject Ho if Sig
7. make decision
8. Interpret results

Problem on Significance of the difference

( Is there a significant difference in the Key Concept of the
of the Subject when they are grouped according to IV/
GV)

Problem on
association

Significance

of

relationship/

(Is there a significant relationship between V1 and V2)

Problem on Significance of the difference

( Is there a significant difference in the Key Concept of the
of the Subject when they are grouped according to IV/
GV)

Ho: There is no significant difference in the Key

Concept of the of the Subject when they are
grouped according to IV/ GV
Ha:There is a significant difference in the Key
Concept of the of the Subject when they are
grouped according to IV/ GV

Problem on
association

Significance

of

relationship/

(Is there a significant relationship between V1 and V2)

Ho: There no significant relationship between V1

and V2.
Ha: There is a significant relationship between
V1 and V2

Type of test Assumption

statistical
s/min
tool
requirement
s
Test of diff of
means of two
paired
groups

DV- Scale

DV- Ordinal
Test of
DV-Nominal
difference of
means of two
independent
groups
DV- Ordinal

t- test paired
samples

Nature of
test

Generic
statement
of the
problem
Is there a significant
difference in the
Key Concept of
the of the Subject
before and after
treatment

Wilcoxon
T-test for
independent
samples

MannWhitney U
test

Is there a significant
difference in the
Key Concept of
the Participants
when grouped
according to
Grouping Variable

Type of test

Assumption
s/minimum
requiremen
ts

statistical
tool

Nature of
test

Generic
statement
of the
problem

Test of
difference of
means of
three or
more groups

DV-Scale
Factor-nominal
Homogeneity of
variances(sig
value in test of
homogeneity is
greater than )

ANOVA

Parametric

Are there a
significant
differences in Key
concept of the
Participants when
grouped according
to Grouping
Variable

DV- Ordinal

Kruskal Wallis

Variable 1- Scale
Variable 2 - Scale
(interval or ratio)

Pearson r

Parametric

Is there a significant
relationship
between the
Variable 1 and
variable 2

V1&v2- at
least ordinal

Spearman Rho

V1 & v2 at
least
Nominal

Chi- square

Test of
relationship

The

virtues of a good statistician, therefore,

involves not only the skills of a good detective,

but also the skills of a good storyteller. As a
good story teller, it is essential to argue flexibly
and in detail for a particular case; data analysis
should not be pointlessly formal. Rather, it
should make an interesting claim by telling a
tale that an informed audience will care about,
doing so through an intelligent interpretation of
data. (Abelson 1995)

Difference in Proportions

To determine whether
the difference in the
proportion of male
smokers and the
proportion of female
smokers is statistically
significant, the z-test
for difference in
proportions can be
applied.

Differences in Means

To determine whether
the mean grade of the
male students
significantly differ
from that of the
female students, the
z-test difference
between means can
be applied.

Z-test

used to test the

comparison of two
groups

test for significance of

the difference
between two means
(in a large sample)

ANOVA

To analyze the
difference among
three or more
means.

Method of analysis used in testing

hypothesis.

It is used to test for significance of observed

differences or relationship between or
among the variables.

This method is used in analytical studies.

Fisher Exact Probability Test used to estimate the

significance probability in 2x2 contingency table.

Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test used to test whether a

cumulative frequency distribution differs
significanctly from chance.

Mann-Whitney Test, The Wilcoxon Test or WaldWolfowitz Runs Test used to test hypothesis for
one variable about whether two independent
groups come from the same population.

Friedman Test used to test hypothesis about

differences between more than two groups, that is
whether the several groups come from the same
population, but requires that the several groups,
matched.

Kruskal-Walls Test same as Friedman test is testing

hypothesis but does not require matched groups.

Moses Test of Extreme Reactions used to test

hypotheses about differences between two groups in
range.

SODA: SODA:

A
B

GEND
ER:
MALE

20
(40%)

30
(60%)

50
(50%)

GEND
ER:
FEMA
LE

30
(60%)

20
(40%)

50
(50%)

50
(50%)

50
(50%)

100
(100%
)

GENDER

SODA

case 1
case 2
case 3
case 4
case 5
...

MALE
FEMALE
FEMALE
FEMALE
MALE
...

Measures of Relationship
Measures of Significant Difference

A
B
B
A
B
...

Measures of Relationship
1. Pearson Product Moment Coefficient of
Correlation (Pearson r)
2. Spearman Rank

The most widely-used type of correlation coefficient is

Pearson r, also called linear or product- moment

Measures of Significant Difference

1. Z-test

used to test the comparison of two groups

test for significance of the difference between two
means (in a large sample)

2. t-test

to test the difference between two groups

To test the significance of the difference between two
means (in a small sample)


case
case
case
case
case

1
2
3
4
5

GENDER

WCC

male
male
male
female
female

111
110
109
102
104

mean WCC in males = 110

mean WCC in females = 103

In order to perform the t-test for independent samples, one independent

(grouping) variable (e.g., Gender: male/female) and at least one
dependent variable (e.g., a test score) are required. The means of the
dependent variable will be compared between selected groups based on
the specified values (e.g., male and female) of the independent variable.
The following data set can be analyzed with a t-test comparing the
average WCC score in males and females.

In the t-test analysis, comparisons of means and measures of variation

in the two groups can be visualized in box and whisker plots. These
graphs help you to quickly evaluate and "intuitively visualize" the
strength of the relation between the grouping and the dependent
variable.

The virtues of a good statistician,

therefore,
involves not only the skills of a good
detective, but also the skills of a good
storyteller. As a good story teller, it is
essential to argue flexibly and in detail for
a particular case; data analysis should not
be pointlessly formal. Rather, it should
make an interesting claim by telling a tale
that an informed audience will care about,
doing so through an intelligent
interpretation of data. (Abelson 1995)