Particle Physics

Michaelmas Term 2011

Prof. Mark Thomson

Handout 1 : Introduction
Prof. M.A. Thomson

Michaelmas 2011

Cambridge Particle Physics Courses

PART II
PART III

Particle and Nuclear Physics

Prof Ward/Dr Lester

Major Option
Particle Physics
Prof Thomson

Minor Option
Gauge Field Theory
Dr Batley

Covering most Standard Model

physics, both experiment and
underlying theory

Minor Option
Particle Astrophysics
Profs Efstathiou & Parker

The theoretical principles

behind the SM

Prof. M.A. Thomson

Introductory course

The connection between

particle physics and cosmology

Michaelmas 2011

Course Synopsis
Handout
Handout
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Handout
Handout
Handout
Handout
Handout
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Handout
Handout

1:
2:
3:
4:
5:
6:
7:
8:
9:
10:
11:
12:
13:
14:
15:

Introduction, Decay Rates and Cross Sections

The Dirac Equation and Spin
Interaction by Particle Exchange
Electron Positron Annihilation
Electron Proton Scattering
Deep Inelastic Scattering
Symmetries and the Quark Model
QCD and Colour
V-A and the Weak Interaction
Leptonic Weak Interactions
Neutrinos and Neutrino Oscillations
The CKM Matrix and CP Violation
Electroweak Unification and the W and Z Bosons
Tests of the Standard Model
The Higgs Boson and Beyond

Will concentrate on the modern view of particle physics with the emphasis
on how theoretical concepts relate to recent experimental measurements
Aim: by the end of the course you should have a good understanding of
both aspects of particle physics
Prof. M.A. Thomson

Michaelmas 2011

Preliminaries
Web-page: www.hep.phy.cam.ac.uk/~thomson/partIIIparticles/
All course material, old exam questions, corrections, interesting links etc.
Detailed answers will posted after the supervisions (password protected)

Format of Lectures/Handouts:
l will derive almost all results from first principles (only a few exceptions).
In places will include some additional theoretical background in nonexaminable appendices at the end of that particular handout.
Please let me know of any typos: [email protected]

Books:
The handouts are fairly complete, however there a number of decent books:
Particle Physics, Martin and Shaw (Wiley): fairly basic but good.
Introductory High Energy Physics, Perkins (Cambridge): slightly below
level of the course but well written.
Introduction to Elementary Physics, Griffiths (Wiley): about right level
but doesnt cover the more recent material.
Quarks and Leptons, Halzen & Martin (Wiley): good graduate level
textbook (slightly above level of this course).
Before we start in earnest, a few words on units/notation and a very brief
Part II refresher
Prof. M.A. Thomson

Michaelmas 2011

Preliminaries: Natural Units

S.I. UNITS: kg m s are a natural choice for everyday objects
e.g. M(Prescott) ~ 250 kg
not very natural in particle physics
instead use Natural Units based on the language of particle physics
From Quantum Mechanics - the unit of action :
From relativity - the speed of light: c
From Particle Physics - unit of energy: GeV (1 GeV ~ proton rest mass energy)

Units become (i.e. with the correct dimensions):

Energy
Time
Momentum
Length
Mass
Area
Simplify algebra by setting:
Now all quantities expressed in powers of
Energy
Time
Momentum
Length
Mass
Area
Prof. M.A. Thomson

Michaelmas 2011

GeV
To convert back to S.I. units,
need to restore missing factors
of
and
5

Preliminaries: Heaviside-Lorentz Units

Electron charge defined by Force equation:
In Heaviside-Lorentz units set
and

NOW: electric charge

has dimensions

Since

Unless otherwise stated, Natural Units are used throughout these

handouts,
,
, etc.

Prof. M.A. Thomson

Michaelmas 2011

Review of The Standard Model

Particle Physics is the study of:
MATTER: the fundamental constituents of the universe
- the elementary particles
FORCE: the fundamental forces of nature, i.e. the interactions
between the elementary particles
Try to categorise the PARTICLES and FORCES in as simple and
fundamental manner possible
Current understanding embodied in the STANDARD MODEL:
Forces between particles due to exchange of particles
Consistent with all current experimental data !
But it is just a model with many unpredicted parameters,
e.g. particle masses.
As such it is not the ultimate theory (if such a thing exists), there
are many mysteries.

Prof. M.A. Thomson

Michaelmas 2011

Matter in the Standard Model

In the Standard Model the fundamental matter is described by point-like
spin-1/2 fermions

LEPTONS

QUARKS

m/GeV
0.3

m/GeV

e
First
Generation 1

1 0.0005 d

1/3

+2/3 0.3

Second
Generation 2

1 0.106

1/3

+2/3 1.5

Third
Generation 3

1 1.77

1/3

+2/3 175

0
0
0

The masses quoted for the

quarks are the constituent
masses, i.e. the effective
masses for quarks confined
in a bound state

0.5
4.5

In the SM there are three generations the particles in each generation

are copies of each other differing only in mass. (not understood why three).
The neutrinos are much lighter than all other particles (e.g. 1 has m<3 eV)
we now know that neutrinos have non-zero mass (dont understand why
so small)
Prof. M.A. Thomson

Michaelmas 2011

Forces in the Standard Model

Forces mediated by the exchange of spin-1 Gauge Bosons
Force

Boson(s)

JP

m/GeV

EM (QED)

Photon

Weak

W / Z

80 / 91

Strong (QCD)

8 Gluons g 1

Gravity (?)

Graviton?

2+

Fundamental interaction strength is given by charge g.

Related to the dimensionless coupling constant
e.g. QED

(both g and are dimensionless,

but g contains a hidden
)

In Natural Units

Convenient to express couplings in terms of which, being

genuinely dimensionless does not depend on the system of
units (this is not true for the numerical value for e)
Prof. M.A. Thomson

Michaelmas 2011

Standard Model Vertices

Interaction of gauge bosons with fermions described by SM vertices
Properties of the gauge bosons and nature of the interaction between
the bosons and fermions determine the properties of the interaction
STRONG
q

EM
q

g
Only quarks
Never changes
flavour

Prof. M.A. Thomson

WEAK CC

WEAK NC
u

All charged
fermions
Never changes
flavour

All fermions
Always changes
flavour

Michaelmas 2011

q
Z
All fermions
Never changes
flavour

10

Feynman Diagrams
Particle interactions described in terms of Feynman diagrams

e.g. scattering

e.g. annihilation

e+

IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER:

time runs from left right, only in sense that:
LHS of diagram is initial state
RHS of diagram is final state
Middle is how it happened
anti-particle arrows in ve time direction
Energy, momentum, angular momentum, etc.
conserved at all interaction vertices
All intermediate particles are virtual
i.e.
(handout 3)
Prof. M.A. Thomson

Michaelmas 2011

INITIAL

e+
e

FINAL

time

11

Special Relativity and 4-Vector Notation

Will use 4-vector notation with

as the time-like component, e.g.

(contravariant)
(covariant)

with

In particle physics, usually deal with relativistic particles. Require all

calculations to be Lorentz Invariant. L.I. quantities formed from 4-vector
scalar products, e.g.

Invariant mass
Phase
A few words on NOTATION
Four vectors written as either:
Four vector scalar product:
Three vectors written as:

or
or
or

Quantities evaluated in the centre of mass frame:

Prof. M.A. Thomson

Michaelmas 2011

etc.
12

Mandelstam s, t and u
In particle scattering/annihilation there are three particularly useful
Lorentz Invariant quantities: s, t and u

Consider the scattering process

3
2

(Simple) Feynman diagrams can be categorised according to the four-momentum

of the exchanged particle

s-channel

e
t-channel

e
u-channel

Can define three kinematic variables: s, t and u from the following four vector
scalar products (squared four-momentum of exchanged particle)

Prof. M.A. Thomson

Michaelmas 2011

13

Example: Mandelstam s, t and u

Note:

(Question 1)

e.g. Centre-of-mass energy, s:

e+

e
This is a scalar product of two four-vectors

Lorentz Invariant

Since this is a L.I. quantity, can evaluate in any frame. Choose the
most convenient, i.e. the centre-of-mass frame:

Hence
Prof. M.A. Thomson

is the total energy of collision in the centre-of-mass frame

Michaelmas 2011

14

From Feynman diagrams to Physics

Particle Physics = Precision Physics
Particle physics is about building fundamental theories and testing their
predictions against precise experimental data
Dealing with fundamental particles and can make very precise theoretical
predictions not complicated by dealing with many-body systems
Many beautiful experimental measurements
precise theoretical predictions challenged by precise measurements
For all its flaws, the Standard Model describes all experimental data !
This is a (the?) remarkable achievement of late 20th century physics.

Requires understanding of theory and experimental data

Part II : Feynman diagrams mainly used to describe how particles interact
Part III: will use Feynman diagrams and associated Feynman rules to
perform calculations for many processes
hopefully gain a fairly deep understanding of the Standard Model
and how it explains all current data

Before we can start, need calculations for:

Interaction cross sections;
Particle decay rates;
Prof. M.A. Thomson

Michaelmas 2011

15

Cross Sections and Decay Rates

In particle physics we are mainly concerned
with particle interactions and decays, i.e.
transitions between states
these are the experimental observables of particle physics
Calculate transition rates from Fermis Golden Rule

is number of transitions per unit time from initial state

to final state
not Lorentz Invariant !
is Transition Matrix Element
is the perturbing
Hamiltonian

is density of final states

Rates depend on MATRIX ELEMENT and DENSITY OF STATES
the ME contains the fundamental particle physics
Prof. M.A. Thomson

Michaelmas 2011

just kinematics
16

The first five lectures

Aiming towards a proper calculation of decay and scattering processes
Will concentrate on:
e
e

e+e +
e q e q

e+

(e qe q to probe
proton structure)

Need relativistic calculations of particle decay rates and cross sections:

Need relativistic treatment of spin-half particles:

Dirac Equation
Need relativistic calculation of interaction Matrix Element:
Interaction by particle exchange and Feynman rules
+ and a few mathematical tricks along, e.g. the Dirac Delta Function

Prof. M.A. Thomson

Michaelmas 2011

17

Particle Decay Rates

Consider the two-body decay

Want to calculate the decay rate in first order

perturbation theory using plane-wave descriptions
of the particles (Born approximation):

2
as

where N is the normalisation and

For decay rate calculation need to know:

Wave-function normalisation
Transition matrix element from perturbation theory
Expression for the density of states

All in a Lorentz
Invariant form

First consider wave-function normalisation

Previously (e.g. part II) have used a non-relativistic formulation
Non-relativistic: normalised to one particle in a cube of side

Prof. M.A. Thomson

Michaelmas 2011

18

Non-relativistic Phase Space (revision)

Apply boundary conditions (
):
Wave-function vanishing at box boundaries
quantised particle momenta:

a
a

Volume of single state in momentum space:

Normalising to one particle/unit volume gives

number of states in element:

Therefore density of states in Golden rule:

with

Integrating over an elemental shell in

momentum-space gives
Prof. M.A. Thomson

Michaelmas 2011

19

Dirac Function
In the relativistic formulation of decay rates and cross sections we will make
use of the Dirac function: infinitely narrow spike of unit area

a
Any function with the above properties can represent

e.g.

(an infinitesimally narrow Gaussian)

In relativistic quantum mechanics delta functions prove extremely useful

for integrals over phase space, e.g. in the decay
and
express energy and momentum conservation
Prof. M.A. Thomson

Michaelmas 2011

20

 We will soon need an expression for the delta function of a function

Start from the definition of a delta function

Now express in terms of

and then change variables

where

x
From properties of the delta function (i.e. here only
non-zero at
)

x
Rearranging and expressing the RHS as a delta function

(1)
Prof. M.A. Thomson

Michaelmas 2011

21

The Golden Rule revisited

Rewrite the expression for density of states using a delta-function
since
Note : integrating over all final state energies but energy conservation now
taken into account explicitly by delta function
Hence the golden rule becomes:
the integral is over all allowed final states of any energy
For dn in a two-body decay, only need to consider
one particle : mom. conservation fixes the other

However, can include momentum conservation explicitly by integrating over

the momenta of both particles and using another -fn

Energy cons.
Prof. M.A. Thomson

Michaelmas 2011

Mom. cons.

Density of states
22

Lorentz Invariant Phase Space

In non-relativistic QM normalise to one particle/unit volume:
When considering relativistic effects, volume contracts by

a
a

a
a/

Particle density therefore increases by

Conclude that a relativistic invariant wave-function normalisation
needs to be proportional to E particles per unit volume
Usual convention:

Normalise to 2E particles/unit volume

Previously used

normalised to 1 particle per unit volume

Hence

is normalised to

per unit volume

Define Lorentz Invariant Matrix Element,

, in terms of the wave-functions
normalised to
particles per unit volume

Prof. M.A. Thomson

Michaelmas 2011

23

 For the two body decay

Now expressing

in terms of

gives

Note:
uses relativistically normalised wave-functions. It is Lorentz Invariant
is the Lorentz Invariant Phase Space for each final state particle
(prove
this in Question 2)
the factor of
arises from the wave-function
normalisation
This form of
is simply a rearrangement of the original equation
but the integral is now frame independent (i.e. L.I.)

is inversely proportional to Ei, the energy of the decaying particle. This is

exactly what one would expect from time dilation (Ei = m).
Energy and momentum conservation in the delta functions
Prof. M.A. Thomson

Michaelmas 2011

24

Decay Rate Calculations

Because the integral is Lorentz invariant (i.e. frame independent) it can be

evaluated in any frame we choose. The C.o.M. frame is most convenient
In the C.o.M. frame

Integrating over

now

and

since the -function imposes

2
For convenience, here
is written as

Writing

Prof. M.A. Thomson

using the -function:

Michaelmas 2011

25

 Which can be written

in the form

(2)

where
and
Note:

determines the C.o.M momenta of

the two decay products
i.e.

imposes energy conservation.

for

Eq. (2) can be integrated using the property of function derived earlier (eq. (1))

where

is the value for which

All that remains is to evaluate

Prof. M.A. Thomson

Michaelmas 2011

26

giving:

But from

, i.e. energy conservation:

In the particles rest frame

(3)
VALID FOR ALL TWO-BODY DECAYS !

can be obtained from

(Question 3)
(now try Questions 4 & 5)

Prof. M.A. Thomson

Michaelmas 2011

27

Cross section definition

no of interactions per unit time per target

incident flux

Flux = number of
incident particles/
unit area/unit time

The cross section, , can be thought of as the effective crosssectional area of the target particles for the interaction to occur.
In general this has nothing to do with the physical size of the
target although there are exceptions, e.g. neutron absorption
here

is the projective area of nucleus

Differential Cross section

d = no of particles per sec/per target into d
incident flux
d

e
e

Prof. M.A. Thomson

or generally

with
integrate over all
other particles
Michaelmas 2011

28

example

Consider a single particle of type a with velocity, va, traversing a region of area

A containing nb particles of type b per unit volume

In time t a particle of type a traverses
region containing
particles of type b

va

vb

Interaction probability obtained from effective

cross-sectional area occupied by the
particles of type b

Interaction Probability =

Rate per particle of type a =

nb v

Consider volume V, total reaction rate =

=

As anticipated:
Prof. M.A. Thomson

Rate = Flux x Number of targets x cross section

Michaelmas 2011

29

Cross Section Calculations

Consider scattering process

1
Start from Fermis Golden Rule:

where

3
2

is the transition matrix for a normalisation of 1/unit volume

Now

For 1 target particle per unit volume

the parts are not Lorentz Invariant

Prof. M.A. Thomson

Michaelmas 2011

30

To obtain a Lorentz Invariant form use wave-functions normalised to

per unit volume

particles

Again define L.I. Matrix element

The integral is now written in a Lorentz invariant form

The quantity
can be written in terms of a four-vector
scalar product and is therefore also Lorentz Invariant (the Lorentz Inv. Flux)

(see appendix I)
Consequently cross section is a Lorentz Invariant quantity
Two special cases of Lorentz Invariant Flux:
Centre-of-Mass Frame
Target (particle 2) at rest

Prof. M.A. Thomson

Michaelmas 2011

31

22 Body Scattering in C.o.M. Frame

We will now apply above Lorentz Invariant formula for the
interaction cross section to the most common cases used
in the course. First consider 22 scattering in C.o.M. frame
Start from

3
1

Here

The integral is exactly the same integral that appeared in the particle decay
calculation but with
replaced by

Prof. M.A. Thomson

Michaelmas 2011

32

 In the case of elastic scattering

For calculating the total cross-section (which is Lorentz Invariant) the result on
the previous page (eq. (4)) is sufficient. However, it is not so useful for calculating
the differential cross section in a rest frame other than the C.o.M:

because the angles in

refer to the C.o.M frame

For the last calculation in this section, we need to find a L.I. expression for
Start by expressing
in terms of Mandelstam t
i.e. the square of the four-momentum transfer

Prof. M.A. Thomson

Michaelmas 2011

Product of
four-vectors
therefore L.I.

33

 Want to express

in terms of Lorentz Invariant

where
x

In C.o.M. frame:

3
2

4
giving
therefore
hence
Finally, integrating over

Prof. M.A. Thomson

(assuming no

Michaelmas 2011

dependence of

) gives:

34

Lorentz Invariant differential cross section

All quantities in the expression for
are Lorentz Invariant and
therefore, it applies to any rest frame. It should be noted that
is a constant, fixed by energy/momentum conservation

As an example of how to use the invariant expression

we will consider elastic scattering in the laboratory frame in the limit
where we can neglect the mass of the incoming particle
E1
m2
e.g. electron or neutrino scattering
In this limit

Prof. M.A. Thomson

Michaelmas 2011

35

22 Body Scattering in Lab. Frame

The other commonly occurring case is scattering from a fixed target in the
Laboratory Frame (e.g. electron-proton scattering)
First take the case of elastic scattering at high energy where the mass
of the incoming particles can be neglected:

e.g.

1 e

e 3

X 4

Wish to express the cross section in terms of scattering angle of the e

Integrating
over

therefore

The rest is some rather tedious algebra. start from four-momenta

so here
But from (E,p) conservation

and, therefore, can also express t in terms of particles 2 and 4

Prof. M.A. Thomson

Michaelmas 2011

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Note E1 is a constant (the energy of the incoming particle) so

Equating the two expressions for t gives

so

Particle 1 massless

using
gives

In limit
Prof. M.A. Thomson

Michaelmas 2011

37

In this equation, E3 is a function of :

giving

General form for 22 Body Scattering in Lab. Frame

The calculation of the differential cross section for the case where m1 can not be
neglected is longer and contains no more physics (see appendix II). It gives:

Again there is only one independent variable, , which can be seen from
conservation of energy

i.e.
Prof. M.A. Thomson

is a function of
Michaelmas 2011

38

Summary
Used a Lorentz invariant formulation of Fermis Golden Rule to
derive decay rates and cross-sections in terms of the Lorentz
Invariant Matrix Element (wave-functions normalised to 2E/Volume)
Main Results:
Particle decay:
Where

is a function of particle masses

Scattering cross section in C.o.M. frame:

Invariant differential cross section (valid in all frames):

Prof. M.A. Thomson

Michaelmas 2011

39

Summary cont.
Differential cross section in the lab. frame ( m1=0)

Differential cross section in the lab. frame (m1 0)

with
Summary of the summary:

Have now dealt with kinematics of particle decays and cross sections
The fundamental particle physics is in the matrix element
The above equations are the basis for all calculations that follow

Prof. M.A. Thomson

Michaelmas 2011

40

Appendix I : Lorentz Invariant Flux

NON-EXAMINABLE

Collinear collision:

To show this is Lorentz invariant, first consider

Giving

Prof. M.A. Thomson

Michaelmas 2011

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Appendix II : general 22 Body Scattering in lab frame

NON-EXAMINABLE

again
But now the invariant quantity t:

Prof. M.A. Thomson

Michaelmas 2011

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Which gives
To determine dE3/d(cos ), first differentiate
(AII.1)
Then equate

to give

Differentiate wrt. cos

Using (1)

Prof. M.A. Thomson

(AII.2)

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43

It is easy to show

and using (AII.2) obtain

Prof. M.A. Thomson

Michaelmas 2011

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