CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS

1.1 Understanding Physics

1.

2.

3.

4.

Physics study of natural phenomena,

properties of matter and energy.
Physics( Latin word physica) science of
natural things.
Branches of study in Physics : Waves,
Heat, Force and Motion, Magnetism
Physicists who contributed to the
advancement of modern science.
Eg: Sir Isaac Newton, Albert Einstein

Thunder and Lighting

1.2 Understanding Base

Quatities and Derived Quantities
1.

2.

3.

4.

Physical quantity is a quantity that can be

measured. Eg: Length, Time, Mass, Area,
Speed and Density.
Physical quantities are divided into base
quantities and derived quantities.
Base quantity is a physical quantity that
cant be defined in terms of other physical
quantities.
Base unit are units for base quantities.

5. Five base quantities and their

corresponding S.I. base unit
S.I. base units

Quick View (Base Quantity)

1. Which pair of physic quantity and SI unit is
correct?

Physical Quantity

SI Unit

Electric current

Ampere

Pressure

Newton

Weight

kilogramme

Force

Joule

2.

Which of the following physical quantities

is not a base quantity?
A. Weight
B. Time
C. Temperature
D. Electric Current

3. Which of the following is base SI unit?

A. Calorie
B. Volt
C. Ampere
D. Feet

6. Derived quantity is a physical quantity

derived from base quantities by
multiplication or division or both.
7. The unit for a derived quantity is known as
derived unit.

A list of derived quantities and their

respective S.I. derived unit

Quick View (Derived

Quantity)
1.

What is the S.I. unit for density?

A. g cm3
B. g cm-3
C. kg m3
D. kg m-3

2. Which of the following is derived quantity?

A. Mass
B. Length
C. Weight
D. Temperature

3. Which of the following quantity consists of

length as a base quantity?
I. Acceleration II. Momentum
III. Frequency
IV. Density
A. I and II
B. III and IV
C. I, II and IV
D. I, II, III AND IV

1.2.2: Scientific Notation/

Standard Form
1.

2.

Scientific notation: shorter method of

expressing very large or very small
numbers.
Scientific notation in standard form is
written as: A x10n where 1< A <10
Value
579 000 000m
0.000 579 m
0.000 000 579 m s-1

Value
form
5.79 x
5.79 x
5.79 x

in standard
108 m
10-4 m
10-7 ms-1

3. Example:
A red light of wavelength 0.000 000 65m
travels at a speed of 300 000 000 ms-1 .
Express these values in scientific notation.

Solution
Wavelength of red light = 0.000 000 65m
= 6.5 x 10-7 m
Speed of light = 300 000 000 ms-1
= 3.0 x 108 ms-1

1.2.3: Prefixes
1.

Prefixes are used to express very large or

very small numbers.

2. Example:
Convert 68millisecond to second in
standard form.
Solution
68 ms = 6.8 x 10 x 10-3 s = 6.8 x 10-2 s

3. Example:
A radio station, called FM CLS, transmits
radio waves with a frequency of 105.7 M
Hz.
What is the frequency of the radio waves in
Hz?
Solution
105.7 M Hz = 1.057 x 102 x 106 Hz
= 1.057 x 108 Hz

4. Example:
The diameter of a bead is 345 m. What is
the diameter in cm?
Solution
345 m = 3.45 x 102 x 10-6 m = 3.45 x 10-4 m
= 3.45 x 10-4 x 100 cm
= 3.45 x 10-2 cm

Exercise:
1.

2.

3.
4.

5.

6.

7.

Arrange the following prefixes of units in ascending

order. (deci, micro, centi, milli)
The density of pure water is 1 g cm -3 . Express this
density in the unit kg m -3 .
Express the frequency of 106.8 M Hz into Hz.
Arrange the following length in ascending order. ( 1x
10-4 km, 1x 10-2m, 1x 103 mm)
A car travel at a velocity of 84.6 km h -1 . What is its
velocity in m s-1 .
The volume of a liquid in a container is 2.5 cm 3. What is
the volume of the liquid, in m3.
Which measurement is the longest?
(2.68x103 m, 2.68x103 cm, 2.68x10-1 mm, 2.68x10-4m)

1.3: Scalar and Vector

Quantities
Physical Quantities

Scalar Quantities

Vector Quantities

Has magnitude only

Has both magnitude and direction

Eg of Scalar Quantities: Distance, speed, mass, energy,

temperature, frequency, time, electric current, power and
density.
Eg of Vector Quantites: Displacement, velocity, weight,
momentum, impulse, acceleration and force.

Resultant of forces:
A single force that represents the combined
effect of two or more forces which act on
the object.
(a) Force acting in the same direction:

6N
8N

Resultant Force = 6N + 8N = 14N

14N

(b) Forces acting in the opposite direction:

6N

8N

2N

Resultant Force = 8N 6N= 2N

(c) Force acting at right angle

6N
10N

8N

Resultant Force = 10N

Quick View
1.

Which of the following is a scalar quantity?

A. Velocity
B. Momentum
C. Energy
D. Force

2. Which quantity is a vector quantity?

A. Area
B. Length
C. Distance
D. Displacement

3. Force 15N and 8N both acting at the same

point produce a resultant force of 7N. This
means that both of the forces 15N and 8N
are acting
A. in the same direction
B. in the opposite direction
C. perpendicular to one another

1.4 Measurement
1.

2.

3.

We need to make measurement for

physical quantities by using standard and
suitable measuring instruments
Error difference between the true value
of a quantity and the value obtained in
measurement.
Error are factors that limit the accurancy
of the measurement.
(cant get rid of it, but you can reduce it)

Error in Measurement
1. 2 main types:
(a) Systematic errors
(b) Random errors

Systematic Error
1. Cumulative errors that can be
compensated for, if the error are known.
2. Systematic errors in measurement result
from
(a) Zero error
(b) Incorrect calibration of the measuring
instruments
(c) Repeated error in reaction time
(d) Wrong assumption

3. Systematic error always occur(with the

same value) when we continue to use the
same instrument.
4. Zero error the measuring instrument
does not start from exactly zero.

5. The measurement obtained is deviated

either consistently too high(always positive)
or too low(always negative) from the actual
value.
6. Systematic errors cannot be eliminated by
repeating measurement and averaging out
the results. It only can be eliminated if the
measuring instrument are calibrated or
adjusted frequently.

Random Error
1. Arise from unknown and unpredictable
variations in condition, and will produce a
different error every time you repeat the
experiment.
2. Random error may occur due to:
(a) use of a wrong technique of
measurement
(b) lack of sensitivity
(c) natural error
3. Random error can be minimized by repeating
measurement several times and taking the
average value of the readings.

Parallax Error (Eg of Random Error):

1. Error in reading an instrument because the
observers eye and pointer are not in a
line perpendicular to the plane of the
scale.
2. To avoid parallax error, the position of the
eye must be in line with the reading to be
taken.
3. To overcome parallax error in instruments
with a scale and a pointer(eg: ammeter),
get the correct reading by making sure the
pointer coincides with its image.

Quick View
1.

When measuring a length with a ruler, the

eye must always be placed vertically
above the mark being read. This is to
avoid
A. Zero Error
B. End Error
C. Parallax Error
D. Random Error

2. Which of the following is true about random

error made in measurement?
A. Becomes smaller of the range on the scale of
the measurement is big
B. Increases when the repetition of
measurement using the same instrument gives
the same value
C. Increase when the value of the repeated
reading increased.
D. Can be reduced by finding the average of the
reading

3. Which of the following pairs is correct?

Description

Type of error

A.

Wrong positioning of eyes

when reading from a metre
rule

Systematic
error

B.

Wrong calibration of
thermometer

Random error

C.

A worn out measuring tape

which does not start with
zero reading

Random error

D.

Error in reading due to the

change of the surrounding
temperature

Random error

Consistency, Accuracy and

Sensitivity
Consistency(Precision)
1. Ability of the instrument to measure a
quantity with little or no deviation among
measurement(value are very close)
2. High precision small deviation from the
mean value.
3. Deviation: the difference between a
measured value and its mean value or
average value.

4. The precision of a measuring instrument

can be improved by
(a) Eliminating parallax error during
measurement
(b) Exercising greater care and effort when
taking readings
(c) Using an instrument which is not defective

Accuracy
1. The degree of a measuring instrument
record readings close to the actual value.
2. An accurate instrument is able to give
readings close to or almost equal to the
actual value of a quantity.
3. An instrument with 100% accuracy does
not exist.

4. Ways to improve the accuracy of a

measurement:
(a) Repeated readings are taken and the
average value is calculated.
(b) Avoid parallax error
(c) Avoid zero error
(d) Use measuring instrument with higher
accuracy. Eg: Vernier Caliper is more
accurate than metre rule.

Comparison between Precision and Accuracy

Sensitivity
1. Sensitivity of an instrument is its ability to
detect quickly a small change in the
quantity to be measured.
2. Measuring instrument that has a scale
with smaller division is more sensitive.

Ruler A : 4.8cm
Ruler B : 5.0cm
Ruler A is more sensitive as it can measure to an
accuracy of 0.1cm compared to 0.5cm for ruler B.

Which of the following has the higher

sensitivity?

Ammeter K. It is because it has a smaller scale.

3. In addition of the size of the division on the

scale of the instrument, the design of the
instrument has an effect on the sensitivity
of the instrument.
4. Eg: Thermometer higher sensitivity to
detect with a narrow capillary and thinwalled bulb.

Quick View
1.

A.
B.
C.
D.

Which of the following increase the

sensitivity of a mercury thermometer?
Increase the length of the capillary tube
Decrease the length of the capillary tube
Increase the diameter of the capillary tube
Decrease the diameter of the capillary
tube

2. Which modification will increase the

sensitivity of the thermometer?
A. Using longer capillary tube
B. Using a glass stem with a thicker wall
C. Using a bulb with thicker wall
D. Using a narrower bore of capillary tube

3. Table below shows the external diameter

readings of the three objects measured by
using different measuring instrument P, Q
and R.
Measuring
instrument

Object

External
diameter
reading /mm

Glass tube

5.28

Test tube

25.3

Measuring
cylinder show
following

35

Which of the
the increasing
order of accuracy of the measuring
instrument?
A. P, Q, R
C. R, Q, P
B. Q, R, P
D. R, P, Q

4. Diagram below shows the target board in a

game. Which result is consistent but not
accurate?

Measuring Instrument
Metre Rule
1. Used to measure lengths from a few cm
up to 1.0m.
2. Each division = 0.1cm
3. has accuracy of 0.1cm
(A)

3. Precautions to be taken when using a

metre rule:
(a) Ensure that object is in contact with the
ruler to avoid inaccurate readings.
(b) Avoid parallax error
(c) Avoid zero error and end errors.

(a)Accuracy : 0.1 cm
(b)To avoid end error
(c)Parallax error
(d)Length of the ruler : 2.8cm 0.6cm = 2.2cm

 B Vernier Caliper

1.

2.

Used to measure an object with dimension

up 12cm with an accuracy 0.01cm.
A vernier caliper consists:
(a) Main scale (one division: 0.1cm, from
0cm to 12cm)
(b) Sliding vernier scale (has a scale with
10 divisions are equal to 9 small division
(0.9cm) on the main scale. One division on
the vernier scale = 0.09cm)

3. Difference between the size of one division

on the main scale and one division on the
vernier scale:
0.1cm 0.09 cm = 0.01cm

How to measure with a vernier

caliper?
1.

2.

Slide the vernier scale along the main

scale until the object is held firmly
between the Jaws of the calipers
The reading to be taken on the main scale
is the mark preceding the 0 mark on the
vernier scale.
Main scale reading =
2.7cm

3. The reading on the vernier scale is indicated by

the mark on the vernier scale which is exactly in
line with any main scale division line.

Vernier scale reading

= 0.07cm

4. Add together the main scale and vernier scale

reading.
Vernier Scale reading
= Main scale reading + Vernier scale reading
= 2.7cm + 0.07cm
= 2.77cm

Main scale = 8.6cm

Vernier scale = 0.02cm
VC scale = 8.62cm

VC scale = 1.06cm

Main scale = 0.00cm

Vernier scale = 0.06cm
VC scale = 0.06cm

VC scale = 5.31cm

Main scale = 6.4cm

Vernier scale = 0.03cm
VC scale = 6.43cm

VC scale = 3.83cm

Zero Error in Vernier Caliper

1. Vernier caliper has a zero error if the 0mark on
the main scale is not in line with the 0 mark on
the vernier scale when the jaws are fully closed.
2. To eliminate the zero error:
Correct(actual) reading = Caliper reading Zero
error

(i) Positive Zero Error

1. Exist when the verniers cale is at the right of the
0 mark on the main scale when the caliper is
fully closed.

Zero Error = +0.05cm

(ii) Negative zero error

1. Exist when the 0 mark on the vernier scale is at
the left of the 0 mark on the main scale when
the vernier caliper is fully closed.

Main scale : 3 x 0.1cm = 0.3cm

Vernier scale : 4x 0.09cm = 0.36cm
Zero Error = 0.3cm -0.36cm = -0.06cm

1.

Main scale : 5 x 0.1cm = 0.5cm

Vernier scale : 6x 0.09cm = 0.54cm
Zero Error = 0.5cm -0.54cm =
-0.04cm

2.

Main scale : 6 x 0.1cm = 0.6cm

Vernier scale : 7x 0.09cm = 0.63cm
Zero Error = 0.6cm - 0.63cm =
-0.03cm

(C ) Micrometer Screw
Gauge
Used to measure very small lengths such as
1.

2.

thickness of wire and diameter of test tube,

ranging from 0.00mm to 25mm, to the accuracy
of 0.01mm.
Consists of a main scale marked on the sleeve
and a scale marked on the thimble called the
vernier(or thimble) scale.

3. Main scale : each division = 0.5mm

4. Vernier scale : each division = 0.01mm

How to measure with

MSG?
1.

2.

The thimble is turned until the object is

gripped very gently between the anvil and
the spindle.
The ratchet knob is then turned until a
tick sound is heard.
Ratcher knob is used to prevent the user from
exerting undue pressure which will affect the
accuracy of the reading.

Main Scale Reading = 2.50mm

Vernier Scale reading = 9 x 0.01mm = 0.09mm
MSG reading :
=Main scale reading + Vernier scale reading
= 2.50mm + 0.09mm
= 2.59mm

MSG reading
= 6.78mm

MSG reading
= 17.42mm

MSG reading
= 4.56mm

MSG reading
= 9.32mm

Zero Error
= +0.02mm

Zero Error
= -0.04mm

+0.0
3

-0.03

+0.1
6

+0.0
4

14.91mm

4.27mm

6.01mm

12.39mm

2.12 mm

1.5 Scientific Investigation

The process of scientific investigation follows a sequence as shown in the
following flow chart:
(1) Making observation
(2) Making inference (initial conclusion)
(3) Making hypothesis
(4) Aim
(5) Identifying variables :
(i) Manipulated variable (MV)
(ii) Responding variable (RV)
(iii) Constant(fixed) variable
(6) Apparatus and materials
(7) Procedure
(8) Result
(9) Data analysis
(10) Conclusion
(11) Precaution

Design an experiment (SPM

Paper 3)
During a physical training session, a boy swung to and fro
using ropes which is tied to a tree.
3m
It is observed that the boy took a longer time to swing to
and fro if he used a longer rope compare to a shorter one
(a) state a suitable inference that can be made.
(b) state one appropriate hypothesis for this
investigation.
(c) Describe a experimental framework to test your
hypothesis. State clearly the following:
(i) Aim
(ii) Variables
(iii) List of apparatus and materials
7 m (iv) Arrangement of the apparatus
(v) Procedure
(vi) Way you would tabulate the data
(vii) Way you would analyse the data.

How to tackle the marks

1.
2.

3.

4.
5.
6.
7.

Inference : MV influences/affects RV (1mark)

Hypothesis : Write the relationship of MV and RV ( eg: MV increase, RV
increase) (1mark)
Variables
(1mark)
(i) Manipulated variable :
(ii) Responding variable :
(iii) Fixed variable :
(1mark)
Aim : To study/investigate the relationship of MV and RV (1mark)
Apparatus and material : (1mark)
Draw the set up apparatus : DRAW WITH PENCIL AND LABEL(1mark)
Procedure (3marks)
(1) Apparatus is set up accordingly
(2) Set 1st MV
(3) Measure RV
(4) Repeat step 2 and step 3 with the length of 2nd MV, 3rd MV, 4th MV,
5th MV.

(7) Result: (1mark)

MV(symbol / unit)

RV (symbol / unit)

1st MV
2nd MV
3rd MV
4th MV
5th MV

(8) Data analysis: (1 mark)

Graph of RV against MV
RV (symbol / unit)

MV (symbol / unit)

Drawing graph:
1.

2.

3.
4.
5.
6.

7.

8.

Graph show the relationship between 2

quantities/variables.
When plotting a graph, all axes should be labelled
with symbol and their respective units.
The graph should be labelled by a title.
x-axis : MV, y-axis : RV
Use scale such as 1:1, 1:2, 1:5, 1:10
Make sure the size of the graph is filled 2/3 of the
graph paper.
The triangle drawn to calculate the gradient should be
more than half the size of the graph drawn
A straight line or curve of best fit is one where the
number of the points above and below are
approximately equal.

Analysing Graph:
I will explain on the whiteboard. Please pay
attention.