Introductory Drill

The parade started at the city hall. (not started from)

It is I (not It is me).
He requested admission to the college. (not
requested for)
As regards this matter, I say the following. (not as
regards to)
He agrees with regard to the amnesty. (not with
regards to)
Equipment is (not Equipments are).
Furniture is (not furnitures are).
Information is (not Informations are).
I was late because of the storm. (not due to) [due
is an adj. in this phrase. E.g. Lateness due to the
weather is excusable]
Baggage is (not Baggages are).
I tried to reason with him. (not reason out)
Maria will copy the poem. (not is the one who)

When she came, I had written the letter (not

I have written the letter).
I saw him run, jump, write (not ran, jumped,
wrote).
I heard him laugh, sing, scream (not
laughed, sang, screamed).
How does the machine work? (not works).
I wish he were a prince. ( not he was)
The baby was well taken care of (not taken
cared of).
I want to apply for the position. (not said
position)
I cant cope with his standard. (not cope up)
Ten people were present at the meeting. (not
in the meeting)

SOME WRITING TIPS

Think first, then write.
First, state the point; then, explain.
Use the best choice of words.
Be concise.
Use a variety of sentence patterns
Make your paragraphs unified and
coherent.
Use specific, concrete language.
Write to express, not to impress.

CONSIDER THOSE ON THE RIGHT!

a large proportion of many, much
accommodate (spell with double cs and ms)
acute crisis crisis
adequate enough (use either, not together)
among [in the midst of more than two] (see
between)
amount of P1,000 P1,000
appraise evaluate (see apprise)
apprise notify or inform (see appraise)
as per according to
as a result because, due to
at the present time now
at this point in time now, this time
avail of use
be of the opinion believe, think, feel
because of the fact that since, because

between [in the midst of two] (see among)

commence begin
commented to the effect that commented
that
concerning about, on
cost the sum of cost
due to the fact that since, because
during the time that while
each and every each, every
end-product/result result
enter into enter
ever since since
few in number few
follow after follow
for a period of for
for the month of for
for the reason that since, because
for the purpose of for

free of charge free

future prospect prospect
give rise to cause
have a/the tendency to tend to
herein here
if and when if
in [preposition if no date/day is specified]
in an effort to determine to determine
in many cases/instances often
in order to to
in re regarding, about, concerning
in spite [always a two-word phrase]
in spite of the fact that despite, although
in the amount of for
in the course of while, in

in the event of if, in case

in the matter of about
in the process of being being
in this day and age now
in view of since
in view of the fact that since, because
increase upward increase
is of the opinion believes, thinks, feels
its [belonging to it]
its [contraction of it is]
joined together joined
last but not least finally, lastly
leaving much to be desired unsatisfactory,
bad
lesser lower, less
masteral masters

may be [can be, possible]

maybe [conjectural, perhaps]
may possibly may
mutual cooperation cooperation
needless to say [then, dont say it]
negative profit loss
on the question of on
on account of [owing to] the fact that since,
because
on August 1997 in August 1997 [no specific
date/day]*
on 1997 in 1997 [no specific date/day]*
one of the purposes [reasons] one purpose
[reason]
other option option
past experience experience
period of time period, time
place emphasis on emphasize

plan ahead plan

preparatory/prior/previous to before
prove beneficial benefit
pursuant to based on, following from
quite very, highly [not somewhat]
re regarding, concerning
result to result in, lead to
revert back revert
said [dont use as adjective, like said option]
same [dont use as noun]
subsequent to after, since
sufficient enough [use either, not together]
irregardless - regardless

surrounding circumstances
circumstances
take into consideration consider
under the circumstances in this/that
case
the undersigned I, me
therein there
utilization use
when and if if
wherein where, in which
whether or not whether
with the exception of except
despite of- despite

A REVIEW OF BASIC GRAMMAR

Definitions of Major Sentence Parts
A sentence is an independent unit of
words that contains a subject and a verb
and closes with a mark of punctuation.
A subject is what or who is talked about in
a sentence. The subject may be a single
word or a group of words. Subjects are
usually nouns (name words) or pronouns
(replacements for name words).

The simple subject is the main noun or

pronoun.
She worked.
The complete subject is the main noun or
pronoun plus all its associated words.
The manager of the publications
department worked.
Subjects can be multiple.
The software and the hardware were
released yesterday.

Sentence Patterns
1. Subject-Verb
Subject
Verb_____
We
worked.
Everyone
is studying.
She
might have called.

Subject-Action Verb-Object
Subject

Action Verb

Most students bought

The manager praised
Mr. Cruz
supervised

Object
supplies.
all employees.
them.

Action
Indirect
Direct
Subject
Verb
object
object
Our company offers employees benefits.

Subject-Linking Verb-Complement
Subject
Linking Verb
Complement
Our customers
are
friends. [noun]
The winner
is
Mr. Lim. [noun]
Your supervisor is
she.[ pronoun]
The callers might have been they. [pronoun]
These data
are
accurate. [adjective]]
His report
is
excellent. [adjective]

Parts of Speech
A noun and a pronoun are words that
name
Nouns are names of people, places,
things, qualities, actions, ideas, and
relationships: President Marcos,
Olongapo, radio, serenity, dancing,
loyalty, kinship.

Five Major Types (classified according to the

objects or qualities which they designate)
Proper Nouns name a particular person, place, or
thing and begin with a capital letter.
Manansala
Bulacan
July
Common Nouns Other nouns and begin with a
small letter.
woman barangay
feet
Collective Nouns used to designate a group of
persons or things
Jaycees
crew
flock
Abstract Nouns refer to things not discernible with
any of our senses
loyalty
wisdom
truth
Concrete Nouns refer to tangible things discernible
with our senses
Bougainvillea
chair
window

Consider the singular and plural of the following nouns:

datum (not data)
data (not datas
corps (pronounced kor)
corps (pronounced korz)
craft (a boat)
craft (boats)
deer
deer
fish
fish
means
means
sheep
sheep
species
species
gross
gross
.....
poultry (are)
.....
cattle (are)
.....
vermin (are)
measles (is)
.....
mathematics (is)
.....
mumps (is)

.....

Some nouns are never pluralized and cannot be

preceded by a or an.
ammunition . . .. some ammunition, pieces or
various kinds of ammunition not
ammunitions
applause. . .some applause, a burst of
applause, much applausenot
applauses
attire. . . . . gorgeous attirenever attires
baggage . . . some baggage, a piece of
baggage
such s a bag, a suitcase,
pieces of baggage,
bagsnot
baggages
evidence pieces of evidencenot evidences
bedding . . . . some bedding, a blanket, a pillow, a
matnot beddings
--Put all your bedding away.

chalk . . . . . . . . some chalk, a piece of

chalk, a stick of chalk--not chalks
clothing . . . . . . .some clothing, articles of
clothingnot clothings
--all his clothes were stolen.
(or) --all his clothing was stolen.
dust . . . . . . . . .some dust, much dust, a little
dust, a speck of dustnever
dusts
equipment . . . some equipment, pieces of
equipment --never
equipments
--his entire equipment was lost.

fun... some fun, lots of fun, a bit of fun--never funs

--lets have some fun.
--did you have fun at the party?
--I put on the silly hat just for fun.
furniture . . . some furniture, a piece of furniture,
such as a
chair, a table, a sofa, an armchair;
pieces
of furniturenot furnitures
gossip (idle talk) . . . some gossip, a piece (bit) of
gossip.
--Gossip does much harm.
graft. . . . some graft, a piece of graft, much
graftnot many grafts
information . . . some information; a piece or
item of information not informations
jewelry . .. . .some jewelry, much jewelry
laughter . . . .some laughter, a burst of laughter, a
laughnot a laughter or laughters

mischief . . . . .some mischief, a piece of

mischief, much mischiefnot a
mischief or mischiefs
news . . . . . . some news, a piece (bit) of
news, a news item.
poetry . . . . some poetry, a poem, poems
not poetries
scenery . . . some scenery, a beautiful scene,
a sad scene, scenes of disaster, scenes of
destructionnot sceneries
soap . . . some soap, a piece of soap, a bar
of soap; cakes of soapnot soaps
stationery. . . some stationery, two boxes of
stationery
ware . . . When preceded by glass, table,
etc. --I saw lots of glassware, tableware,
and hardware in the Chinese store.

Some nouns change their meaning when pluralized.

advice (counsel) . . . a piece of advice, some
advicenot advices. Advices may be used only
when it means dispatches or official information.
candy (sweetmeats in general ). . . a piece of
candy. Use candies only when different varieties of
candy are meant.
--We have sold caramels, chocolates, gum drops,
and other candies.
--I bought six pieces of hard candy.
food (in general) . . . Foods means varieties of
food.
--Avoid fatty foods.
fruit (in general) . . . . . fruits may be used only
when referring to different varieties of fruit.
--Our mango trees are bearing abundant fruit this
year. (not fruits)

instruction (knowledge imparted)

Instructions means directions or orders.
--We profited from our teachers instruction.
--His instructions were to give you this letter and to
get your reply.
paper (the material) . .Papers means newspapers,
documents, written work, or different kinds of paper,
not pieces of writing material.
--I bought some unlined paper (not papers).
--I subscribe to several papers.
--The papers telling about the discovery of the
Katipunan were burned in the Tondo fire.
property (belongings or real estate). . . . Properties
means attributes.
--Coldness and hardness are properties of ice.
--Your lot is a fine piece of property
work (toil). . Works means literary or artistic productions,
factories, or industrial plants; mechanical parts, or engineering
projects (like public works), such as: Shakespeares works;
the Engineer Island Iron Works; the works of my watch.

Some nouns are always plural.

ashes . . .The ashes of Bernard Shaw were mixed
with those of his wife.
goods . . .The goods in his store are not worth
buying.
kin . . . All my kin have curly hair. (Do not spell kin
with s.)
pliers . . The pliers were lost by the mechanic. (but)
A pair of pliers was lost.
police . . The police are on his trail. (Call a
policeman.)
poultry . . .Juans poultry are healthy.
proceeds .. .The proceeds from the sale are big.
remains . . . His remains were taken to the funeral
parlor.
scissors . ..These scissors are dull. (but) This pair of
scissors is dull.
spectacles or glasses . ..My spectacles were broken.
tidings . . .The tidings were so good that they made
everybody happy.

Pronoun: a word that can take

the place of a noun.
Antecedent: a word that comes
before a pronoun and to which
the pronoun refers.
The writers [antecedent] submitted the
proposal on time, but they [pronoun]
neglected to include a budget.

One problem in pronoun use is that, whereas

a noun rarely changes form no matter how it
is used in a sentence, a pronoun shifts form
depending on use and position. Such
changes are called inflections.
Noun as subject
Charlie called the meeting.
Pronoun as subject He called the meeting.
Noun as direct object The president called Charlie.
Pronoun as direct object The president called him.
Noun showing possessionGive me Charlies address.
Pronoun showing possession Give me his address.
The nounCharliechanged only to show
possession, while the pronoun changed case (and
thus form) with each use and position in the
sentence.

Personal Pronouns directly

substitute for a noun
as subject (nominative case) - She did
it.
as object (objective case) I saw her.
as owner (possessive case) It is my
book.
-indicate the person speaking (first
person),
the person spoken to (second
person),
and the person or object spoken of
(third person).

Forms of personal pronouns:

1st person
Nominative:
Possessive:
Objective:
2nd person

Singular
I
my, mine
Me

Plural
we
our, ours
us

Nominative: You
Possessive: your, yours
Objective: You
3rd person

you
your, yours
you

Nominative:
Possessive:
Objective:

they
their, theirs
them

He, she, it
his, her, hers, its
him, her, it

Nominative case pronouns are used

as subjects or subject complements.
They are also used following the
infinitive to be when the infinitive has
no subject.
_________Nominative Case_________
Subject
They are sky divers.
Complement That is he.
To be without
a subject
Jon pretended to be he.

Objective case pronouns

Object of a verb
Bill asked her for help. [direct object]
Give them a map. [indirect object]
Object of a preposition
Supplies were sent to them.
Just between you and me, profits are
slipping.
Object of an infinitive
He wants to see her.
Used when the infinitive to be that it
follows has a subject
John expected the callers to be us.

Possessive case pronouns

Dolly lost her alligator shoes.
The bike is his.
Possessive case is also used
before gerunds
I cannot tolerate your being late so
often.
Their singing is truly inspiring.

Do not confuse possessive pronouns with

contractions.
Possessive Pronouns Contractions
Theirs is the first car
in the line.
left.

Theres no stationery

The cat is cleaning

Its a dangerous
its fur.
situation.
Your presentation
was excellent.

Youre the next

speaker.

Problems in Using Personal Pronouns

Compound subjects and objects
Mary asked you and me for advice.
Larry and he enrolled in the class.
Will you permit Tony and them to join them?

Comparatives
Each month Jon saves as much as they.
(Jon saves as much as they [not them] save.)
Lisa spells better than he. (better than he
[not him] spells.)
Tardiness annoys Mel as much as me. (as
much as it annoys me [not I].)

Relative Pronouns relate or link

clauses to their antecedents
who (whose, whom), which, whichever,
whoever (whomever), whatever, that
ex. She is the dancer and She arrived
today can be combined by the use of
the relative pronoun: She is the
dancer who arrived today.
The choice of the relative pronoun is
partly determined by its antecedent:
who used to refer persons only
which used to refer things
that used to either persons or things

Demonstrative Pronouns - this, that,

these, those are the principal
demonstrative pronouns; they also
function as modifiers of nouns:
This is the last show. This show is the
last.
Demonstrative pronouns point out
precisely or identify certain things or
persons.
Interrogative Pronouns used to
introduce a question: Who picked up
the laundry? Which bus should we
take? What do you plan to do?

Indefinite Pronouns designate

persons or things less specifically than
other pronouns: Everyone seems
satisfied. Each of the students has
complaints.
everyone everybody anything others
anybody somebody nobody one
none
everything several some
several another other few
something

Compound Personal Pronouns

simple pronouns combined with the
word self or selves: myself, yourself,
himself, herself, itself, oneself;
ourselves, yourselves, themselves.
They are used as reflexive pronouns
by simply referring to the subject:
He was quite proud of himself.
Or as intensive pronouns by
emphasizing or intensifying their
antecedents:
She did it herself.

Reciprocal Pronouns indicators of

some mutual relationships between
two or more persons or things and
used interchangeably.
There are only two reciprocal
pronouns: each other, one another.
They respect each other.
They trust one another.

Making Pronoun References Clear

Unclear: Celia told Lisa that she should verify
the balance.
Clear: Celia told Lisa to verify the balance.
Unclear: In that restaurant, they do not allow
you to smoke.
Clear: Smoking is not allowed in that
restaurant. Or: The restaurant management
does not allow its patrons to smoke.
Unclear: Kevins boss said he deserved a raise.
Clear: Kevins boss said that Kevin deserved a
raise.

Indefinite Pronouns as antecedents

Always Singular
Always Plural
anybody everything each
both
anyone
neither
either
few
anything nobody
no one
many
nothing
somebody someone
several
everybody everyone
Someone in the mens league left his lights on.
Each of the corporations had its own home
office.
Few of the vendors missed the show to
demonstrate their equipment.
Several of our branches communicate their
documents electronically.

Verbs
A verb is a word or words that show action,
occurrence, state of being, or condition.
Verbs can be singular or plural.
The engineer opened the window. (action)
Profits have decreased. (occurrence)
The writer was an expert. (condition) a
linking verb
The meeting is in the conference room.
(condition)
Verbs can be multiple.
Scientists investigate, analyze, and report.

Kinds of Verbs

Transitive verb- expresses an action directed

toward a person or thing. It needs a noun or
pronoun to complete its meaning.
The direct object (also called the object of
the verb) is the thing or person that receives
the action of the verb. It answers this
question: What or who receives the action?
The indirect object is the thing or person
that indirectly receives the action of the verb.
An indirect object answers the question to
what? for what? or to whom? for whom?

Stockholders demanded [transitive verb]

improved dividends [direct object].
The editor sent [transitive verb] the
manager [indirect object] an e-mail
response [direct object].
Yesterday the president called [transitive
verb] him [direct object].
The company gave them [indirect object]
incentives [direct object].

Transitive verbs should be followed by objects

(nouns or pronouns) not by prepositions.
Wrong: They enjoyed.
Right: They enjoyed the game.
The transitive verbs demand, request, seek should
be followed by an object, not by a prepositional
phrase introduced by for.
Wrong: The union demanded for an increase in wages
for all employees.
Right: The union demanded an increase in wages for
employees.
Or :
The union demanded that an increase in wages
be given to all employees. (In this case, the noun
clause introduced by that serves as an object of the
verb.)
Wrong: The student is requesting for readmission to his
college.
Right: The student is requesting readmission to his
college.

Note: When request is used as a noun, it may be

followed by for.
For example: The students request for readmission
to his college was granted.
Wrong: The victim was only seeking for justice.
Right: The victim was only seeking justice.
Wrong: I ordered for 10 copies of the book.
Right: I ordered 10 copies of the book.
Wrong: Please page for Mr. Cruz.
Right: Please page Mr. Cruz.
Wrong: The partners are discussing about the new
location.
Right: The partners are discussing the new location.
Wrong: He was considered as the best employee of the
year.
Right: He was considered the best employee.
Wrong: 1998 was declared as the worst year on record.
Right: 1998 was declared the worst year on record.

An intransitive verb does not require

a direct object
Business grows rapidly at this time of the
year.
Tanya listened carefully to the directions.
Note: Adverbs (rapidly, carefully) and
prepositional phrases (at this time, to
the directions) do not receive the action
expressed by the verbs.

A linking or condition verb can

stand between the subject and a
predicate noun or a predicate
adjective. The most commonly used
linking verb is a form of to be: am, is,
are, was, were Linking verbs also
include appear, become, get, look,
remain, seem, feel, taste, smell.
The subject complement is a word
following a linking or condition verb
that renames or describes the
subject.
The expert was an attorney. [renames]
The index is incomplete. [describes]

Verb Voices
Voice: the verb form that shows whether the
subject is acting or acted upon.
Active voice: the sentence construction in
which the subject of the sentence performs
the action of the verb.
Lisa attended the conference.
The software engineer debugged the program.
Passive voice: the sentence construction in
which the subject of the sentence receives
the action of the verb.
The conference was attended by Lisa.
The program was debugged by the software
engineer.

Readers expect active voice:

When they must know who is doing what.
The system delivers electronic mail quickly.
I designed the overload circuit.
When they must follow a series of
sentences that present new information.
The beginning of each sentence should set
the context or orient the reader to what
follows.
This product is a member of a family of highperformance super microcomputers. An
entirely new and innovative multiprocessor
architecture sets this family of super
microcomputers apart from the other
systems.

Readers expect passive voice:

1. When what is important is the
receiver, event, or result of an action
The first versions of UNIX were
developed around 1970 at Bell
Laboratories.
The aurora borealis can be observed in
the early morning hours.
When who or what carried out the
action is not important or is unknown.
Error messages are displayed on the
screen
Programs are executed according to their
priority level.

3.When the writer does not want to assign

responsibility for an action.
The graphics in the manual were badly
designed.
The discount has been reduced to 8 per cent.
4.When the doer is modified by a long
phrase that would separate the subject
from the verb by too many words.
Not
Staff members from the Inertial
Confinement Fusion Program and the
Science Education Center have developed
a special program about lasers and fusion
energy.
But
A special program about lasers and
fusion energy has been developed by staff
members.

The passive voice is especially

helpful (and even regarded as
mandatory) in scientific or technical
writing or lab reports, where the actor
is not really important but the process
or principle being described is of
ultimate importance.
Instead of writing "I poured 20 cc of
acid into the beaker," we would write
"Twenty cc of acid is/was poured into
the beaker."

We use the passive voice to good effect in

a paragraph in which we wish to shift
emphasis from what was the object in a
first sentence to what becomes the subject
in subsequent sentences.
E.g. The executive committee approved an
entirely new policy for dealing with
academic suspension and withdrawal. The
policy had been written by a subcommittee
on student behavior. If students withdraw
from course work before suspension can
take effect, the policy states, a mark of
"IW" . . . .

Passive Verb Formation

The passive forms of a verb are
created by combining a form of the "to
be verb" with the past participle of the
main verb.
Other helping verbs are also
sometimes present: "The measure
could have been killed in committee."

Verb Moods
1. indicative- used to express a fact;
2. imperative- used to express a
command;
3. subjunctive- used to express a
doubt, a conjecture, or a
suggestion.

Subjunctive Mood
If and wish clauses ( statement is
doubtful or contrary to fact)
If Lori were here, we could proceed. (Lori
is not here.)
She acts as if she were the boss. (She is
not the boss.)
But if the statement could possibly be
true, use the indicative form.
If Chris was in the audience, I missed
him. (Chris might have been in the
audience.)

That clauses. When a that clause

follows a verb expressing a command,
recommendation, request, suggestion,
or requirement, the subjunctive verb
form be is used for to be verbs. For
third-person singular verbs, the s or es
is dropped.
The doctor recommended that everyone
be [not is] inoculated.
Our manager ordered that all reports be
[not are] proofread twice.
The Secret Service requires that
everyone near the President receive
[not receives] top security clearance.

Motions
Gary moved that a vote be [not is] taken.
It has been seconded that the meeting
be [not is] adjourned.
Note: In a sentence without that clauses,
do not mix subjunctive and indicative
verbs.
Right: If she were skilled, she would
receive job offers.
Right: If she is skilled, she will receive job
offers.
Wrong: If she were skilled, she will
receive job offers.

Verb Tense
Primary Tenses
Present Tense- expresses current or
habitual action, facts
We order office supplies every month.
He is a lawyer.
What did you say his duties are? (Not
were, if he continues to perform his
duties.)

Past tense- expresses completed

action.
Mr. Cruz needed the forms yesterday.
She used to have an electric typewriter.
Future Tense- expresses action that is
expected to occur at a later time. The
verb will is generally used to express
future tense. Careful writers use shall
in appropriate first-person
constructions. (I/We shall attend the
meeting)
Andy will need office supplies next week.

The secondary or perfect tenses are:

Present perfect
Bayani has been a classmate of mine since the
primary grades, and we have developed a
close friendship.
I havent been to Davao since last summer.
The actions were completed prior to the time
of speaking or began in the past and are still
going on at the time of speaking.
The present perfect tense versus the simple
past tense.
The present perfect tense, used alone,
implies that much has been accomplished:
Right: I finished the work. (The task was not
very hard.)
Right: I have finished the work. (The task
was long and hard.)

Past Perfect
The rain had stopped when the bell rang.
I had written the resignation letter before
my manager gave me a new
assignment.
Wrong: After I have talked to my boss , I
decided to go home.
Right: After I had talked. . . .
The past perfect tense expresses
an action completed before another
action indicated by a verb in the
simple past tense.

The past perfect tense versus the simple

past tense.
The past perfect tense can never be
used alone in a sentence unless a
previous statement has used the
simple past tense:
Wrong: I had studied in Baguio last
summer.
Right: I studied in Baguio last summer.
Right: It was six p.m. Maria had cleaned
the whole house. She had even
washed some clothes.

Future perfect
We shall have reached the top of the
mountain by sunrise tomorrow. (The
action will be completed prior to a
future time.)
At five oclock on Friday you will have
finished your work.
It will be observed that the present, past,
and future perfect tenses are formed
by putting the corresponding tenses
of the helping verb have before the
past participle of the main verb.

The progressive tenses are sometimes called the

imperfect tenses. they express action that is not
completed, just as the perfect tenses express action
which is completed (perfected).
Examples:
Present progressive
We are thinking of you.
Past progressive
We were thinking of you.
Future progressive
We shall be thinking of you.
Present perfect progressive
It has been raining for two days now.
Past perfect progressive
The mother learned that the dog had been guarding
her baby for many hours.
Future perfect progressive
By five oclock we shall have been riding nine hours.

Auxiliary Verbs are helping verbs.

They do not constitute a verb phrase
by themselves, but must be
accompanied by a main verb.
The first auxiliary in a verb phrase is
called an operator and is usually
located before the subject in yes-no
questions, and before not in negative
statements.
Primary Auxiliary Verbs: do, have,
be

Do
Forms of the auxiliary verb do
Present third person singular does
Other persons
do
Past
did

Uses of the auxiliary verb Do

As Operator: the do- construction
To form yes-no questions when the verb has
no auxiliary
He knows her. Does he know her?
They want an answer today.
Do they want an answer today?
He left yesterday.
Did he leave yesterday?
To express emphasis.
He does know her.
They do want an answer today.
He did leave yesterday.

In commands both negative and

positive.
Do come in.
Dont say a word.
In tag questions (shortened yes-no
questions added to a statement).
He knows her, doesnt he?
He left yesterday, didnt he?
Note:
Do is usually followed by the base
form of the verb

As substitute for parts of a clause.

For the whole clause except the subject.
She can type as well as he does. (can
type)
Who wants to go swimming today?
I dont. (want to go)
For part of a clause except the subject
and adverbials.
Have you filed your application yet?
I did yesterday. (I filed my application.)
3) For a verb in a clause.
She paints landscapes better than he does
portraits. (paints)

Note:
Do also functions as a main verb
denoting some action or
Activity and as such has the following
forms:
Do, does, doing, did, done
He has been doing very well in school.
She has not done her homework yet.
The decorator did the living room in
the modern style
She does the chores in the house.
They do the statistical study for the
project

Have
Forms of the auxiliary have
Base
have
-s form
has
Past
had
-ing form
having
Past participle
had

Uses of the auxiliary have

To form the perfective aspect
He has problems in school. (pres. perf.)
He has been having problems in school.
(pres. perf. prog.)
He had had problems in school before
he dropped out. (past perf.)
He had been having trouble in school
before he finally dropped out.
(past perf. prog.)
He will have finished his course by
June next year. (future perf.)
He will have been finishing his course by
next June. (future perf.prog.)

As operator (i.e., first auxiliary in a

verb phrase).
In yes-no questions.
Has he fulfilled his promise?
Have they met each other before
today?
Note: Like do, the verb have is also a
main verb and functions as a
transitive verb

Be
Forms of the auxiliary be:
Base
be
Present
1st person singular
am
3rd person singular
is
2nd person
are
1st & 3rd person plural
are
Past
1st & 3rd person singular
was
2nd person
were
1st & 3rd person plural
were
-ing form
being
Past participle
been

Uses of the auxiliary verb be

To express the progressive aspect:
a form of be + V-ing
I
am )
He/She
is/was )
We/They
are/were )
studying the proposal.
I/She/We/They will be
)
He/She has been ) studying the
proposal.
He had been studying the proposal
when he was interrupted.

b. To form the passive: a form of

be + past participle
He/She is/was
)
We/They are/were ) taken by
surprise
He/We/They will be )
c. As operator (1st auxiliary in a verb
phrase).
In yes-no questions.
Is he arriving today?
Were they convinced of his
innocence?

Modal Auxiliaries
Forms of the modal auxiliaries
Modal auxiliaries do not have the s
forms, the ing form or the ed participle.
Can, may, shall and will have special past
forms; the other modal auxiliaries do not.
Present : can may
shall
will
Past
: could might should would
The other modal auxiliaries are the
following:
used to
must
dare
ought to
need

Uses of the modal auxiliaries

Modal auxiliaries are used to express:
State or habit in the past: used to
He used to work every Sunday.
The Philippines used to be a
Commonwealth
The modal auxiliary used always
takes the to- infinitive and occurs in
the past tense. It may take the doconstruction.
He used to drink a lot
Did he use to drink a lot?

Negation and questions: dare and

need
He need not explain anything to me.
The explanation need not be as
complicated as that.
Need there be so many details in your
report?
I dare not question his judgment.
Dare I ask him about it?

Note:
Dare and need occur only in the base form.
Need is also a main verb in the construction,
need to + infinitive, to indicate obligation. It
can also be used as a transitive verb with a
direct object.
He needs to try another time.
He needs good references to qualify for a job.
Dare is sometimes used to express a threat.
You dare contradict me!

Possibility: can, may, could, might

a. Factual and theoretical possibility
The curriculum for science majors may
be improved.
The curriculum can be improved.
b. Negation: cant or cannot to
express impossibility
He cant be waiting after all this time.
(=It is impossible that )
He may not be waiting after all this
time.
(=It is possible that he is not waiting.)

c. Questions: can to express

possibility (Not may)
Can he still be working this late?
Can he still be holding that against
you after all these years?
d. Possibility in the past: could
In those days, few natives could hold
property
In Spanish times, one could be
imprisoned for a minor offense.

e. Hypothetical possibility: could, might

If a storm were to come now, the whole
house could collapse.
If your father were here, he might not
approve of your quitting school.
f. Tentative possibility: could, might in the
hypothetical sense to express
Something possible but unlikely.
He could be feigning illness.
He could be telling the truth.
Could you have made an error in the
computations?
Could you have misplaced it?

4. Ability: can, be able to, capable

of, etc.
He can speak Spanish fluently.
He can paint portraits from
photographs.
a.Questions: can
Can he keep his word?
Can she teach third grade?
b.Past time: could to refer to a
permanent or habitual ability.
He could read when he was only four.
She could play the piano even as a
child

c. Hypothetical ability: could

She was so angry, she could have killed him.
He was so hungry, he could eat anything
5. Permission: can, may
Can we smoke in the conference room?
May we smoke in the conference room?
(more formal)
Note:
In the negative, can and may express the
idea of prohibition.
You cannot smoke in the conference room.
You may not smoke in the conference room.

Past and hypothetical permission: could

When he was a delegate, he could travel
abroad at any time. (He was allowed to)
If you were a member, you could join the trip
at a reduced rate. (You would be allowed to)
Could is also used in tactful requests for
permission.
I wonder if I could use your phone?
Could we ask you what you think of the play?

6.Certainty or Logic Necessity: Must + Infinitive

Have to + Infinitive or have
got to

There must be something missing.

There must be something you omitted from the
text.
They have to work hard to get promoted.
7. Prediction: will, must
Jose will have received my letter by now.
He must have received it by now.
Will and must often express certainty about
events which are not actually observed.
That must be my mother on the phone. (Ive been
expecting her to call at about this time).
That will be the TV repairman at the door. (I called
one to come at about this time.)

Will expresses prediction when used

in conditional sentences.
He will be difficult to work with if you
cross him.
If the wiring is defective, the motor will
not start.
Will can also be used to express
predictability or characteristic behavior.
A boar will turn around and attack when it
is cornered.
He will often go without breakfast when
hes in a hurry.

8. Probability: Ought to, should

They should be arriving at the airport by
now.
They ought to be at the airport by now.
9.Obligation: ought to, should be,
should
I ought to wire him.
Everybody should be in class by eight
oclock.
I should confer with him before I decide..
I should call on the president for
instructions.

10. Willingness or volition: shall, will, would

Who will help with the luggage? (Who is willing to help
me?)
Ill walk with you to the corner.
a. Negation
They wouldnt do anything about it. (They refuse)
He wouldnt take no for an answer.
b.. Past Time
Even as a young boy, he would do anything that paid
well.
He was so poor, he would skip lunch to save money.
c. Hypothetical
If you knew how unscrupulous he is, you wouldnt want
to do business with him.
If you saw the amount of unfinished work he has in the
office,
you would understand why he hardly has time for his
family.

11. Tentative or tactful expression of ones wishes:

would like, shall or should
Would you like me to close the door?
I would/should like to see him before he leaves.
Shall I get it for you?
Should I ask them to turn down the radio?
12. Intention: will, shall
I will/shall let you know my decision soon.
We will/shall not bother you with the minor details.
13. Insistence: Stressed will, shall
He will fix the car himself instead of calling a
mechanic. (He insists on )
I will ask for an explanation even if he gets angry with
me.
I will not/shall not do it for all the money in the world!

d. Advice: should
You should be more patient with the children.
You shouldnt be so careless with your books.
e. Tentative condition in if-clauses: should
If you should hear from him, let me know.
If she should need anything at all, please call me.
f.
Neutral idea in that-clauses: should
Its too bad that you should leave so early.
Im surprised that he should object to this clause in the
contract.
g. Recommendation or suggestion in thatclauses: should
The doctor recommends that you should take a
vacation.
The director suggests that the retirement plan should
be reexamined.

Subject-Verb Agreement
A verb must agree with its subject in
number.
A singular subject takes a singular verb
and a plural subject takes a plural verb.
Examples: The river winds through the valley
to the sea.
Everybody is obliged to write his parents
once a month.
We have seen the workers.
They have built new houses.
He has given me a new dictionary.
Flor doesnt want to go.
He does his job well.

When or, nor, eitheror, neither

nor connect two subjects one of
which is singular and one plural,
the verb agrees with the nearer
subject.
Examples:
Neither the hunter nor his friends are
expected to return tomorrow.
The carpenters or their foreman has
filed a suit against the company.
Neither they nor I am to blame.

A collective noun takes a singular

verb except when the members of
the group are regarded
individually.
Examples:
The Philippine Senate is now in
session.
The team are in different parts of the
field.

The connectives with, together

with, including, as well as, no less
than, and not, but not, which come
between the subject and the verb
do not affect the number of the
verb.
Examples:
Mrs. Santos, as well as her tenants, is
here now.
This steak with onions tastes good.

The expression many a implies a large

number but takes a singular verb.
Example: Many a hunter has been lost in the
jungle.
The pronoun all when it means everything
or the only thing takes a singular verb.
Examples:
All is not lost when hope lingers.
All of the audiences attention was focused
on the speaker.
All they could do was scream.
All I had was ten centavos.

When all stands for a group of

individuals, it takes a plural verb.
Examples:
All are here now.
All were required to sign a paper.
Note: The expression a few when
used as subject requires a plural
verb.
Only a few bother to observe rules of
courtesy.

The verb agrees with its subjectnot with

the predicate noun.
Example: His objection to San Juan is the
mosquitoes.
Two or more subjects connected by and
require a plural verb. But when these
subjects designate the same person or
thing, the verb is singular. Closely related
ideas expressed by a compound subject
may take a singular verb.
Examples: My dog and my parrot are very
good friends.
My professor and adviser was at the game
yesterday. (the same personprofessor
and adviser)
Rice and fish is our favorite food. (correct)
Rice and fish are our favorite food. (also
correct)

Two or more nouns preceded by a

single article take a singular verb.
Examples:
The barber and surgeon was the same
person in the Middle Ages.
The barber and the surgeon are
different individuals today.
The President and Armed Forces
commander-in-chief was busy during
the flood.

Quantities and sums, or multiples of

numbers expressing a single idea
require a singular verb.
Examples:
Forty meters is the length of this sidewalk.
Five and six is eleven.
Ten pesos is too much to pay for a ticket.
In expressions beginning with The
number, number is singular, but those
beginning with A number, number is
plural.
Examples:
The number of settlers is increasing.
A number of boys have offered to go.

Fractions take a singular verb if the

object of the of-phrase that follows
is singular; and a plural verb if the
object of the of-phrase is plural.
Examples:
One sixth of the cake was eaten
yesterday.
One half of the students have said
they want to go to Manila.

When a compound subject is

composed of an affirmative and a
negative part, the verb agrees with
the affirmative part of the subject.
Examples:
One man, not the people, is guilty.
The rotten tomatoes, not the good one,
have been thrown away.
Not Pining, but Nena and Narding, do
their work everyday.

None requires a singular verb when

it refers to a mass noun; none
requires a plural verb when it refers
to a countable noun.
Examples:
None of the students were found in the
classroom.
None of the rice was saved.
None of the work is finished.
Every always takes a singular verb.
Example: When everything was finished,
Leogardo went to church.

A compound subject takes a plural verb.

Example: Laguna and Batangas were under
the Huks last month.
There is and there are
There is (was) precedes a singular noun,
and there are (were) precedes a plural
noun.
Example: There were dancing, singing, and
other activities.
Many and much used as nouns:
Right: Many say that nursing is a difficult
course.
Right: Much remains to be done. Much has
been said about honor.

In lots of, all of, and some of, lots, all

and some have the same number as
the object of of.
Examples:
Some of the students are here.
All of the cake is eaten.
A noun plural in form but singular in
meaning requires a singular verb.
Examples:
Mathematics is difficult for him.
The news is really sad.

A verb does not agree with a word

which intervenes between it and the
subject.
Examples: A new list of rules has been
issued.
You, the moderator, are supposed to
guide the discussion.
A verb must agree with its subject in
person. An important thing to
remember is that the present tense
of a verb in the third person singular
invariably ends in s.
Examples: The boy sings well.
She changes her mind frequently.

Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement:
A pronoun must agree with its antecedent
in number, gender, and person.
Singular: The girl came with her parents.
(feminine gender, third person)
Plural: The girls came with their parents. (third
person)
First person: I wish you had told me earlier.
Second person: You should have brought it
yourself.
Third person: The woman revealed that she
was over forty.

Singular pronouns refer to singular

antecedents.
Anyone may be absent if he has a good
excuse.
Everyone finished his work before the end of
the hour.
Every book is in its place.
A pronoun agrees with the nearer of two
antecedents.
He likes anything or anybody who can help
him.
He likes anybody or anything which can help
him
Neither Ricky nor his companions would admit
that they cared to come.

When the antecedent of a pronoun

is a collective noun, the pronoun is
either singular or plural depending
on the sense of the sentence.
The council postponed the date of its
meeting. (as a unit)
The council welcomed their guests. (as
individuals)

Making Pronoun References Clear

1. Indefinite Reference
Every personal pronoun should refer
clearly to a definite antecedent.
Indefinite: I dont think they should
show violence on TV. (Who are
they?)
Better: I dont think violence should
be shown on TV.

Note: The pronoun YOU is

sometimes used when it is not meant
to refer to the person spoken to. The
effect is usually confusing.
Indefinite: In every contest you have
rules to follow.
Better: In every contest there are rules
to follow.

2. Ambiguous Reference
The reference of a pronoun is
ambiguous if the pronoun may refer
to more than one antecedent, and the
reader does not know which
antecedent is meant.
Ambiguous: If you put this sheet in your
notebook, you can refer to it. (What
does it refer to, the sheet or your
notebook?
Better: You can refer to this sheet easily
if you put it in your notebook

3. Vague or General Reference

General reference occurs when a pronoun
refers to a general idea that may be clear to
the writer but that is vague to the reader,
often through the use of the pronouns
WHICH, THIS, THAT, and IT.
Vague: Vacation is fast approaching, which is
good. (What is good, the vacation or the idea
that it is fast approaching?)
Better: It is good to realize that vacation is fast
approaching.
Vague: Pete started working in a national wild
life preserve last year. This may be his lifes
work. (What does this refer to?)
Better: Petes work in a national wild life
preserve may be his lifes work.

Guidelines for who and whom:

Who is the subject form whether in a
question, a sentence or a clause.
Who will attend that meeting?
The manager asked who was on
vacation.
Whom is the object form, used as
direct object or object of a preposition
or verbal.
T. Cruz is the engineer whom you should
contact.
The letter was written To whom it might
concern.

Who and Whom

The general rule is that if the person
represented by the pronoun is a doer in the
sentence or clause, the nominative case
(who, whoever) is correct.
If that person is being acted upon, the
objective case (whom/whomever) is
appropriate.
Did he say who will succeed Arroyo? (Who is
the subject of the second clause.)
Whom did you ask for information? ( You is
the subject; whom represents the person
being asked)
Who do you think will decide what we will do
next? (do you think is a parenthetical
expression coming between the subject
who and the verb will decide)

A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that

limits or describes another word.
Adjectives modify nouns and pronouns.
A fine spray of distilled water was used to clean
the surface.
Note: In compound descriptive adjectives
formed out of a number and a noun, the
noun is always singular.
Examples: ten-foot pole (not feet)
six-man commission
six-foot man
ten-mile road
four-power treaty

Notes:
Repeat an article before each item in a series
E.g.: She is a gossip, a hypocrite, and a coward.
Never put a or an before a plural noun.
Use the only after the noun it modifies has
already been mentioned. Use a the first time.
E.g. Recently I attended a baseball game. Everyone
enjoyed the game very much.
The usually precedes mountain ranges, oceans,
rivers, seas, monuments, periodicals, museums,
concert halls, and institutions.
E.g. the Sierra Madre Mountains, the Pacific Ocean,
The Manila Times, the Philippine Womens
University
The does not precede the name of a college or
university beginning with the name of a person
E.g. Arellano University

Names of universities containing of begin

with the.
E.g. the University of the Philippines, the
University of San Carlos
Say Far Eastern University (without the)
The is not used before a noun preceded
by a possessive adjective.
E.g. Sorianos Ice Cream Parlor
The does not precede the name of a bay,
or an avenue, street, or boulevard.
E.g. Manila Bay, Rizal Avenue
Use the before musical instruments.
E.g. He plays the piano, the violin, etc.

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and

other adverbs.
Adverbs usually indicate the manner,
place, or time of an action expressed by a
verb.
E.g. He carefully stacked the cartons in the
truck.
Adverbs may show degree.
E.g. very, too, extremely, somewhat
He is too tired to walk.
Note: Right: He cant go, and I cant either
(not too or also)
Right: No parking is allowed on either side
of the street. (not both sides)

SOME SOURCES OF CONFUSION

Adjectives and Nouns
Adjectives used as noun never add s.
They either represent several
persons, and take a plural verb, or
abstract qualities and take a singular
verb.
Examples: The poor are always with
us. (person)
The good in man is not always
apparent. (abstract quality)

Adjectives and Adverbs

The girl looks beautiful. (adjective)
The girl sings beautifully. (adverb)
In the first sentence the girl is
described; in the second sentence
the manner in which the girl sings is
told.
Note: Adjectives (not adverbs) should
follow linking verbs.

The horse runs fast. (not fastly)

They speak slowly.
(not slow)
I feel good. (I am in high spirits)
I feel well. (I am in good health)
The medicine tastes bitter. (not bitterly)
She grows more beautiful day by day. (not
beautifully)
Hold the rope tight. (if the rope is to be kept
taut)
Hold the rope tightly. (if the manner of
holding the rope is described)
The garbage smells bad. (garbage is
described)

Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs

Adjectives and adverbs have three degrees
of comparison: positive, comparative, and
superlative.
He is tall. (positive)
I am taller than he. (comparative)
My sister is the tallest of us all. (superlative)
I walk slowly.
You walk more slowly (or slower) than I.
She walks the most slowly (or slowest) of all.
That is the best story I ever read.
Note: Adjectives and adverbs of more than
two syllables do not add er and est to form
the comparative and the superlative; instead
they are preceded by more, less, most, or
least.

Pre-modifiers with Degrees of

Adjectives
Both adverbs and adjectives in their
comparative and superlative forms
can be accompanied by premodifiers, single words and phrases,
that intensify the degree.
We were a lot more careful this time.
He works a lot less carefully than the
other jeweler in town.
We like his work so much better.
You'll get your watch back all the
faster.

The same process can be used to downplay

the degree:
The weather this week has been somewhat
better.
He approaches his schoolwork a little less
industriously than his brother does.
And sometimes a set phrase, usually an
informal noun phrase, is used for this
purpose:
He arrived a whole lot sooner than we
expected.
That's a heck of a lot better.
If the intensifier very accompanies the
superlative, a determiner is also required:
She is wearing her very finest outfit for the
interview.
They're doing the very best they can.

Occasionally, the comparative or

superlative form appears with a
determiner and the thing being
modified is understood:
Of all the wines produced in
Connecticut, I like this one the most.
The quicker you finish this project, the
better.
Of the two brothers, he is by far the
faster.

Absolute Modifiers
The following should not be used in
comparisons:
round
dead
complete
square
true
right
unique
correct
straight
perpendicular endless unanimous
perfect
excellent whole
final
ideal
impossible

Comparisons Within a Group

Illogical: Miami is larger than any city in
Florida. (This suggests that Miami is larger
than itself.)
Logical: Miami is larger than any other city in
Florida.
Illogical: Alex works harder than anyone in the
office.
Logical: Alex works harder than anyone else in
the office.
Note: The inclusion of other and else ensures
that the person or thing being compared is
separated from the group with which it is
compared.

Placing Adverbs and Adjectives

The position of an adjective or
adverb can affect the meaning of a
sentence.
Examples:
Only I can fix this copy machine. (no
one else can fix it.
I can only fix this copy machine. (I cant
fix anything else.
I can fix only this copy machine. (I cant
fix any other copy machine.)
The general rule is that the modifiers
should be placed as close as possible
to the words they modify.

Wrongly placed modifiers:

Ambiguous modifier- could logically
modify more than one word in a
sentence.
Example: The students who had been
talking noisily entered the classroom.
(Had they been talking noisily, or did
they enter the classroom noisily?)
Better: The students who had been
talking entered the classroom noisily.
Or:
The students who had been
noisily talking entered the classroom.

Dangling modifier- a phrase or clause

placed next to a word that it cannot modify
sensibly. Danglers usually appear at the
beginning of sentences.
Example: After reading the original study,
the article remains unconvincing.
Better: After reading the original study, I
find the article unconvincing.
Or:
The article remains unconvincing in
the light of the original study.
Faulty: Although not finished, we left the
meeting early to see a movie.
Revised: Although the meeting was not
finished, we left early to see a movie.

A dangling modifier occurs when the deleted subject

of an infinitive, participle, or elliptical phrase is not
the same as the subject of the main clause.
Examples: 1. To find shoes that fit properly, several
stores may have to be visited.
2. While changing oil in my BMW, two of my acrylic
nails broke.
3. When completely folded, they put the laundry away.
Correction: Either rearrange the main clause so that
its subject is the same as the deleted subject or
supply the subject for the dangling verb form.
Examples: 1. To find shoes that fit properly, you may
have to visit several stores.
2. While changing oil in my BMW, I broke two of my
acrylic nails.
3. When completely folded, the laundry was put away.
When the laundry was completely folded, they put it
away.

Rule 2d. Avoid dangling modifiers.

A modifier is said to dangle when
the word it modifies is missing or is
hidden somewhere in the sentence.
The ambiguity caused by a dangling
modifier may be clarified by (1)
supplying the word modified, (2)
expanding the phrase into a clause,
or (3) reordering the sentence.

Dangling: After pulling my tooth, I left the

dentists office.
Improved: After the dentist pulled my
tooth, I left his office.
Dangling: To be sure of your spelling,
the dictionary should be consulted.
Improved: To be sure of your spelling,
consult the dictionary.
Dangling: When only six years old, my
mother enrolled me in Grade One.
Improved: When I was only six years
old, my mother enrolled me
Dangling: The bus was crowded, thus
causing me to become dizzy.
Improved: The stiffing atmosphere in the
crowded bus made me dizzy.

Misplaced modifier-modifies only one

word but its position in the sentence
creates an unintended meaning.
Faulty: My brother lost the calculator
when he slipped on the wet road that I
gave him for Christmas.
To correct a misplaced modifier, move
the modifier closer to the word it
modifies.
Improved: My brother lost the calculator
that I gave him for Christmas when he
slipped on the wet road.

PREPOSITIONS
A preposition is a word placed before a noun
or a pronoun to show its relation to some
other word in the sentence.
Prepositions of Time: at, on, and in
We use at to designate specific times.
The train is due at 12:15 p.m.
We use on to designate days and dates.
My brother is coming on Monday.
We're having a party on the Fourth of July.
We use in for nonspecific times during a day,
a month, a season, or a year.
She likes to jog in the morning.
It's too cold in winter to run outside.
He started the job in 1971.
He's going to quit in August.

Prepositions of Place: at, on, and

in
We use at for specific addresses.
Joe Cruz lives at 55 Boretz Road in
Makati.
We use on to designate names of
streets, avenues, etc.
Her house is on Boretz Road.
And we use in for the names of landareas (towns, counties, states,
countries, and continents).
She lives in Makati.
Makati is in Metro-Manila

Prepositions of Movement: to
and No Preposition
We use to in order to express movement toward a
place.
They were driving to work together.
She's going to the dentist's office this morning.
Toward and towards are also helpful prepositions
to express movement. These are simply variant
spellings of the same word; use whichever sounds
better to you.
We're moving toward the light.
This is a big step towards the project's completion.
With the words home, downtown, uptown, inside,
outside, downstairs, upstairs, we use no
preposition.
Grandma went upstairs
Grandpa went home.
They both went outside.

Prepositions with Nouns,

Adjectives, and Verbs.
Prepositions are sometimes so firmly
wedded to other words that they have
practically become one word. (In fact,
in other languages, such as German,
they would have become one word.)
This occurs in three categories:
nouns, adjectives, and verbs.

NOUNS and PREPOSITIONS

approval of
awareness of
belief in
concern for
confusion about
desire for

fondness for
grasp of
hatred of
hope for
interest in
love of

need for
participation in
reason for
respect for
success in
understanding
of

ADJECTIVES and PREPOSITIONS

afraid of
angry at
aware of
capable of
careless about
familiar with

fond of
happy about
interested in
jealous of
made of
married to

proud of
similar to
sorry for
sure of
tired of
worried about

VERBS and PREPOSITIONS

apologize for
ask about
ask for
belong to
bring up
care for
find out

give up
grow up
look for
look forward to
look up
make up
pay for

prepare for
study for
talk about
think about
trust in
work for
worry about

Prepositions always introduce prepositional

phrases. A prepositional phrase, comprises
a preposition and its object, plus any
adjectives modifying that object.
in the secret garden to Manila
under the table into the red box
by the president above the trees
across the river over the clouds
with my mother down the river
from the country up the stairs
along the highway of the school
beside the fountain

CONJUNCTIONS
A conjunction connects words, phrases, or
clauses.
Conjunctions may be coordinate,
subordinate, or correlative.
Coordinate conjunctions connect words,
phrases, or clauses of equal rank
Examples: The yard and the kitchen are clean.
(to show addition)
The school teaches children to think;
moreover, it tries to keep them healthy. (to
show addition).
The living room is clean but the kitchen is filthy.
(to show contrast)
I have been absent from class a number of
times; therefore, I expect to be given more
work than my classmates. (to show
consequence)

Conjunctive adverbs connect equal

sentence elements and are used to
effect transition from one thought to
another:
accordingly in fact
on the other hand
consequently that is
thus
furthermore moreover
then
hence
nevertheless therefore
in the meantime however on the contrary

Correlative conjunctions- are always paired

both and
not only but (also)
eitheror
neither nor
In using correlative conjunctions, place them so that
the words, phrases, or clauses being joined are
parallel in construction.
Not parallel: Either Ellen is working in Manila or in
Makati
Parallel: Ellen is working
either (a) in Manila
or (b) in Makati.
Not Parallel: She was not only gracious, but she was
also kind.
Parallel: She was
not only (a) gracious
but also (b) kind.

Subordinating conjunctions- join

unequal sentence elements
after
because since
although before
so that
as
if
that
as if
unless
while
in order that
until

when
where
whether
provided

A verbal is a word derived from a verb

but not functioning as a verb, though a
verbal can be part of a verb phrase.
Verbals can be:
Infinitives
to pump
Present participles
pumping
Past participles
pumped
Gerunds
pumping

Verbals can function as subjects,

direct objects, modifiers, objects of
prepositions, and parts of verb
phrases.
The mechanic plans to pump the tank
dry. (direct object)
Pumping procedures are explained in
the service manual. (modifier)
The pumped oil was stored in an
underground tank. (modifier)
Pumping iron is good exercise.
(subject)

Participles occurring alone are adjectives.

Standing in front of the ruined cathedral, the
young author wept. (present participle,
modifying author)
Smashed against a thick concrete wall, the
car was a total wreck. (past participle,
modifying car)
I like this work for the reasons mentioned
above.
Hilario cannot get a job, and he is becoming
discouraged.
(Never fail to write or pronounce the d or ed on
the past participle of a regular verb.)
A participle and all its modifiers constitute a
participial phrase.

A gerund is that form of a verb

ending in ing which is used as a
noun.
Swimming is an invigorating exercise.
Father objects to Lydias smoking.
He loves walking in the rain.
A gerund and its modifiers constitute
a gerund phrase.
Walking in the rain is a gerund phrase
in the third example above.

Infinitives are formed by putting to before

the present tense of the verb: to go, to
sleep. They are used as nouns,
adjectives, or adverbs.
To run is easy. (noun)
He has lots of money to spend. (adjective)
Her method is sure to succeed. (adverb)
Infinitives must never be formed carelessly
with the past form.
After the infinitive sign to use only the
present tense, or first principal part.
She learned how to apply (not applied)
first aid.

A phrase is a group of related words that

does not contain a subject and a verb. A
phrase is not an independent unit. A phrase
functions as a part of speech. Common
types of phrases are prepositional
phrases, verb phrases, infinitive
phrases, and gerund phrases.
under review [prepositional]
to understand the sentence [infinitive]
to stand for reelection [infinitive and
prepositional]
mountain climbing [gerund]
have informed [verb]

A clause is a group of related words

containing a subject and a verb.
Some clauses are independent units,
while others depend on the rest of the
sentence for completion.
because the building was unoccupied
which was not covered
the committee met three times

Sentences Classified according to

Form
A simple sentence contains a subject
and a predicate, either or both of
which may be compound.
Elsa sings
Elsa and Manny sing and dance.

A compound sentence contains two or

more independent clauses.
A clause is a group of related words that
contains a subject and a verb. The subject
may be understood. A short sentence is
called a clause when it becomes part of a
larger sentence.
now she is eligible
fasten the plate to the right side [you fasten]
who ran the meeting
An independent clause is a clause that
can stand alone as a complete sentence.
Shortwave transmissions have unique
qualities.

Coordinators are connecting words.

They are also called coordinating
conjunctions. Coordinators join items
of equal value or importance.
Coordinators can join words, phrases,
or clauses. The common coordinators
include:
and
or
yet
for
but
nor so

Adverbial connectives are adverbs

that can be used, with a semicolon, to
join independent clauses. They are
also called conjunctive adverbs. They
include the following words:
accordingly
furthermore
moreover
then
also
hence
namely
therefore
anyhow
however nevertheless thus
anyway
indeed
now
besides
instead
otherwise
consequently

Punctuation Rule for Compound

Sentences
A compound sentence may be punctuated in
one of three ways:
1. independent clause
, coordinator
independent clause
The replacement parts arrived this morning,
and we can proceed with the repairs.
2. independent clause ; independent clause
The replacement parts arrived this morning;
we can proceed with the repairs.
3. independent clause ; adv. connective,
independent clause
The replacement parts arrived this morning;
thus, we can proceed with the repairs.

Compound Sentences with Colons

In compound sentences, the two clauses
have parallel ideas that add information
(using and as a connector) or that contrast
information (using but or however).
Occasionally, however, the first clause of a
compound sentence introduces a second
clause that summarizes or explains the first
clause. In this case, the two clauses may be
joined by a colon.
Classes are application oriented: People can
walk away and use the knowledge at their
jobs the next day.
This expert system has a specific function: It
helps the company create a personnel policy
manual up to 500 pages.

Punctuation Rules
Do not use commas when
coordinating conjunctions join
compound verbs, objects, or phrases.
The bank will notify you of each
transfer, or it will send you a monthly
statement. (Comma used because or
joins two independent clauses.)
The bank will notify you of each
transfer or will send you a monthly
statement. (No comma needed
because or joins the compound verbs
with a single independent clause.)

Thomas Edison said that colleges should

not have to choose between lighting their
buildings and enlightening their students.
(No comma needed because and joins the
compound objects of a prepositional
phrase.)
Stockholders are expected to attend the
meeting or to send their proxies. (No
comma needed because or joins two
infinitive phrases.)
Analyze your possible property risks, and
protect yourself with insurance. (Comma
needed to join two independent clauses;
the subject of each clause is understood to
be you.)

Complex Sentences with Subordinators

An independent clause is a clause that
can stand alone as a complete sentence.
Many companies have supported the
program.
A complex sentence is a sentence
containing one independent clause and
one or more dependent clauses.
After Rosa was promoted, she assumed
management of the project.

Subordinators include the words below.

Subordinators are also called
subordinate conjunctions. Subordinators
can begin dependent clauses.
after
whenever
where
If
even if
when
although
in order that
as
once
as if
since
whereas
as though
unless
Wherever because
until, till
While
before

Punctuation Rule
To punctuate a complex
sentence when the dependent clause
begins with a subordinate
conjunction, do the following.
If the dependent clause stands first, it
must be followed by a comma.
Once a file variable has been
declared, a programmer must
associate the variable with the file on
the disk.

If the dependent clause stands after

the independent clause, no
punctuation is required unless the
subordinator is though, although, or
whereas.
A programmer must associate
the variable with the file on disk once
a file variable has been declared.
More than 14,000 people apply
to the program, although fewer than
1,400 are accepted.

Complex Sentences with Relative

Pronouns
Dependent Clauses Used as Adjectives
Complex sentences consist of
dependent and independent clauses.
Some dependent clauses are formed by
adding subordinating conjunctions to
clauses and thus reducing their
independence.
Other dependent clauses are formed by
adding relative pronouns to reduce their
independence. These clauses may be
used either as adjectives or as nouns.

A clause used as an adjective stands

after the word it modifies and is called
a relative clause.
Common relative pronouns that can
begin clauses include
that
who
whose
which
whom
what
The paper that she edited was
published last week.
The American Medical Writers
Association, which has over 3,000
members, serves communicators in
the biomedical and health sciences.

The operator who entered the data

made several errors.
The representative whom we elected
served three terms.
The engineer whose invention was
patented received a company award.

Note: Each relative clause above is

used as an adjective, that is, it
modifies or explains the noun
preceding it, answering the questions
what? or who?

Dependent Clauses Used as Nouns

Dependent clauses can also be used
as nouns in the sentence. The
clauses may look the same, but they
are not punctuated. They are called
noun clauses.
[subject] That we lost the contract
was a contributing factor to the layoff.
[direct object] Everyone understands
what caused the leak.
[object of prep.] He wrote the letter to
whom it might concern.

Punctuation Guidelines
If the clause is necessary to establish
the specific identity of the noun it
follows, it is a primary identifier. That
is, it restricts or limits the meaning of
the word it describes. A primary
identifier is called restrictive, and no
commas surround it. In terms of
meaning, a restrictive modifier
defines.
The man who was arrested
yesterday is free on bail.
The printer that he ordered two
weeks ago has now arrived.

If the clause merely adds extra

information to the noun it describes,
it is a secondary identifier. Such a
secondary identifier is called
nonrestrictive, and it should be
surrounded by commas. In terms of
meaning, a nonrestrictive modifier
comments, and it could be dropped
from the sentence without materially
affecting the meaning.
Joe Cruz, who was arrested
yesterday, is free on bail.
The laser printer, which he
ordered two weeks ago, has now
arrived.

Generally, that begins restrictive

clauses and which begins
nonrestrictive clauses.

SENTENCE FAULTS
Fragments are phrases or adverbial
and adjective clauses. They are
sometimes mistaken for complete
sentences.
the encouraging result of his interview
because he gave up her job
representing the Dean of the college
Note: Avoid fragments by making
certain that each sentence contains a
subject and a verb and makes sense
by itself.

Fragment: We are looking for a potential

manager. An individual who can accept
responsibility and supervise other
employees.
Revision: We are looking for a potential
manager who can accept responsibility and
supervise other employees.
Fragment: My local vending machine
dispenses microwavable popcorn. Which
contains a warning to remove the plastic
outer wrap before heating.
Revision: My local vending machine
dispenses microwavable popcorn, which
contains a warning to remove the plastic
outer wrap before heating.

Run-ons are composed of two or more

sentences; they run on because they lack
the punctuation that tells the reader when
to stop.
Run-on: I wasnt feeling well I didnt go to
work.
Revision: Because I wasnt feeling well, I
didnt go to work.
Run-on: The work ethic in the Philippines is
not dead it is deeply ingrained in most
people.
Revision: The work ethic in the Philippines is
not dead. It is simply ingrained in most
people.

A Comma Splice results when two sentences

are incorrectly joined or spliced together with a
comma.
Comma Splice: Let us show you how to improve
your mail service, contact our postal service
representative.
Revision: Let us show you how to improve your
mail service. Contact our postal service
representative.
Comma Splice: First, fill out an employment
application, then submit your resume and
prepare for an interview.
Revision: First, fill out an employment application.
Then submit your resume and prepare for an
interview.

Parallelism- means having balance

and consistency between or among
parts of sentences that serve the
same function. It is achieved by using
the same grammatical form for the
two or more parts of sentences
serving as part of a series, a contrast,
a comparison, a choice, or an
expression of equality.

Series
Not parallel: Jan is responsible for
membership, accounting, and to oversee
marketing.
Parallel: Jan is responsible for membership,
accounting, and marketing. (All parts of the
series are nouns.)
Not parallel: She completed the accounting
report quickly, accurately, and with a
thorough appearance.
Parallel: She completed the accounting
report quickly, accurately, and thoroughly. (All
parts of the series are adverbs.)

Contrast:
Not parallel: Morris speaks clearly but
writes with many errors.
Parallel: Morris speaks clearly, but
writes poorly. (Both parts are verbadverb combinations.)
Comparison
Not parallel: Your selling season is
longer than the Sandburg RV Center.
Parallel: Your selling season is longer
than the Sandburg RV Centers
selling season.

MODIFIERS
Modifiers are words, phrases, or clauses
that limit or describe another word. Some
modifiers act as adjectives; they modify
nouns or pronouns. Other modifiers act as
adverbs; they modify verbs, adjectives, or
other adverbs. Prepositional phrases can
function as modifiers, as can verbal
phrases.
He graduated in 1997. (prep. phrase acting
as adverb)
Note: Modifiers should be placed next to the
word they modify whenever possible.

Wrongly placed modifiers:

Dangling modifier: a modifier at the beginning
of a sentence that has a different implied
subject from the real subject of the sentence.
Being programmable, you can set the VCR
to record your show even if youre not home.
Misplaced modifier: a modifier that appears by
its position to modify the wrong thing.
Pour each of the solutions (developer, fixer
and water) into a separate tank at 68F.
Squinting modifier: a modifier that could
modify either the preceding word or the
following word; its unclear which.
The calendar which is published regularly
lists meeting times.

How to Repair Specific Modifier Problems

Dangling modifiers. To fix a dangling modifier,
you can 1) rewrite the introductory phrase,
giving it a subject of its own, or 2) make the
subject of the main clause the same as the
implied subject of the modifier.
Not Being programmable, you can set the VCR
to record your show even if youre not home.
But
Because a VCR is programmable, you
can set it to record your show even if youre not
home.
Or Being programmable, a VCR can be set to
record your show even if youre not home.

Misplaced modifiers. To fix a

misplaced modifier, you can 1) move
the modifier closer to the word you
intend it to modify, or 2) rewrite the
sentence so that the modifier is clear.
Not Pour each of the solutions
(developer, fixer and water) into a
separate tank at 68F.
But Pour each 68F solution
(developer, fixer and water) into a
separate tank.
Or
Bring each solution (developer,
fixer and water) to 68F, then pour
each into a separate tank.

Squinting modifiers. To fix squinting

modifier, you can 1) move the
modifier closer to the word you intend
it to modify, or 2) repeat the modified
word so the intention is clear.
Not The calendar which is published
regularly lists meeting times.
But The regularly published calendar
lists meeting times.
Or The calendar, which is regularly
published, lists meeting times

How to Repair Sentences with

Wrongly Placed Modifiers:
Single-word adjectives usually
precede the words they modify.
Adjective phrases or clauses usually
follow the words they modify.
Single-word adverbs can either
precede or follow the word they
modify.
Adverb phrases or clauses may be
placed in many positions. Study a
sentence from the readers
perspective and rephrase for clarity.

WORDINESS
Redundancy- unnecessary repetition
Some redundancy is caused by time,
quantity, type, and dimension words.
The program carries out all tests
in a time of 3 seconds.
The temperature ranged from a
minimum of 60F to 88F.
The monitor screen measures
12 by 15 inches in size.
She has been working in the
area of usability testing.

Deadwood or Repetition
Grandiose Pairs. Both legal and insurance
documents overflow with words presented in
grandiose pairs.
each and every
midway between
basic and fundamental
integral part
end result
made and accepted
assemble together
proposed plan
provisions and stipulations ordinance and law
reconstruction and repair very unique
last and final
potential opportunity

great majority
past history
consensus of opinion new changes
exactly identical
true facts
few in number
refer back
advance warning collect together
visible to the eye
positively certain
Solution: Retain the more effective of
the two words and cross out the
other.

Wasted Words
Wordy
Concise
1. a large number of
1. many,
several
2. absolutely complete 2. complete
3. period of one week 3. one week
(day
(day, month).
month)
4. are of the opinion that 4. believe
5. at a distance of 50 feet 5. at 50 feet
6. at a later date
6. later
7. at all times
7. always

Wordy
Concise
8. at an early date
8.soon; at once,
immediately
9. at the present time
9. now
10. beg to remain
10. (omit)
11. circular in shape
11. circular, round
12. consensus of opinion 12. consensus or
opinion
13.costs the sum of 13. costs
14. despite the fact that 14. although
15. during the year of 1980 15. during 1980
16. first of all
16. first

Wordy
Concise
17. in the amount of 17. for
18. in the near future 18. soon
19. in this day and age 19. now
20. long period of time 20. long time
21. made the announcement
that
21. announced
22. pursuant to our
agreement
22. as we agreed
23. please do not
hesitate to write
23. please write
24. reached the conclusion 24. concluded

Wordy
Concise
25. sign your name 25. sign
26. we ask your kind
permission
26. may we
27. we wish to
acknowledge
27. we acknowledge
28. will you be kind enough 28. please
29. until such time as
29. until
30. you know you know 30. (omit)
31. in view of the fact that 31. since
32. with regard to
32. about

Sentence Variety
Variety in Modifier Placement
Using Initial Modifiers:
Dependent Clause: Although she wasn't
tired, Maria went to sleep.
Infinitive Phrase: To please her mother,
Maria went to sleep.
Adverb: Quickly and quietly, Maria went to
sleep.
Participial Phrase: Hoping to feel better,
Maria went to sleep.

Using Mid-Sentence Modifiers:

Appositive: Maria, an obedient child, went
to sleep.

Use a variety of basic sentence structures:

Simple (one independent clause):
Saigon falls.
We drove from Manila to Bicol in one day.
In the midst of all the trouble about legacy,
my youngest sister and her husband took a
plane for an extended trip to Malaysia.
Compound (more than one independent
clause):
We were exhausted, but we arrived in time
for my father's birthday party.
Thought and study and study alone do not
produce a book; direct and indirect
observations corroborate ones thoughts
and studies.

Complex (one independent clause and at least one

dependent clause):
Although he is now 79 years old, he still claims to
be 65.
If then there is to be separation and option
between humane letters on the one hand, and the
natural sciences on the other, the great majority of
mankind, all who have not exceptional and
overpowering aptitudes for the study of nature,
would do well, I cannot but think, to choose to be
educated in humane letters rather than in the
natural sciences.
Compound-complex (more than one independent
clause and at least one dependent clause):
After it was all over, my dad claimed he knew we
were planning something, but we think he was
really surprised.

Monotonous: The
early Tagalogs also
believed in the last
judgment. The good
would be rewarded.
Their souls would
enjoy eternal peace
and happiness in a
village of rest. This
was called Maca.
The bad would be
punished.
They
would suffer eternal
torment in the valley
of
grieve
and
affliction. This place
was
called
Kasanaan.

Improved: The Tagalogs

also believed in the last
judgment when the good
would be rewarded and
the bad punished. While
the souls of the former
would enjoy eternal peace
and happiness in a village
of rest called Maca, those
of the latter would suffer
eternal torment in the
valley of grieve and
affliction, a place called
Kasanaan
(perhaps
Kasamaan).

References:
Guffey, Mary. Ellen Business English.
1999
Johnson, Lois Rew. Editing for Writers.
1999
Eugenio, Damiana,et.al. A Textbook in
Freshman English. 1978