Quality Concepts

Statistical
Statistical Process
Process Control
Control

Basics of Statistical
Process Control

Statistical Process
Control (SPC)

UCL

Sample

monitoring production
process to detect and
prevent poor quality
subset of items produced
to use for inspection

Control Charts

process is within
statistical control limits

LCL

SPC in TQM

SPC

tool for identifying problems

and make improvements
contributes to the TQM goal of
continuous improvements

SQC in Services

Service Organizations have lagged behind

manufacturers in the use of statistical quality
control
Statistical measurements are required and it is more
difficult to measure the quality of a service

Services produce more intangible products

Perceptions of quality are highly subjective

A way to deal with service quality is to devise

quantifiable measurements of the service element

Check-in time at a hotel

Number of complaints received per month at a restaurant
Number of telephone rings before a call is answered
Acceptable control limits can be developed and charted

Applying SPC to
Service

Nature of defect is different in services

Service defect is a failure to meet
customer requirements
Monitor times, customer satisfaction

Applying SPC to
Service (cont.)

Hospitals

Grocery Stores

timeliness and quickness of care, staff responses to

requests, accuracy of lab tests, cleanliness, courtesy,
accuracy of paperwork, speed of admittance and
checkouts
waiting time to check out, frequency of out-of-stock
items, quality of food items, cleanliness, customer
complaints, checkout register errors

Airlines

flight delays, lost luggage and luggage handling,

waiting time at ticket counters and check-in, agent and
flight attendant courtesy, accurate flight information,
passenger cabin cleanliness and maintenance

Applying SPC to
Service (cont.)

Fast-Food Restaurants

Catalogue-Order Companies

waiting time for service, customer complaints,

cleanliness, food quality, order accuracy,
employee courtesy
order accuracy, operator knowledge and
courtesy, packaging, delivery time, phone
order waiting time

Insurance Companies

billing accuracy, timeliness of claims

processing, agent availability and response
time

Variability

Random

common causes
inherent in a
process
can be eliminated
only through
improvements in
the system

Non-Random

special causes
due to identifiable
factors
can be modified
through operator or
management
action

Sources of Variation in
Production and Service
Processes

Common causes of variation

Random causes that we cannot identify

Unavoidable

Cause slight differences in process variables like

diameter, weight, service time, temperature, etc.

Assignable causes of variation

Causes can be identified and eliminated

Typical causes are poor employee training, worn tool,

machine needing repair, etc.

Measuring Variation: The

Standard Deviation
Small vs. Large
Variation

Process Capability

A measure of the ability of a process to

meet preset design specifications:

Determines whether the process can do what

we are asking it to do

Design specifications (tolerances):

Determined by design engineers to define the

acceptable range of individual product
characteristics (e.g.: physical dimensions,
elapsed time, etc.)
Based upon customer expectations & how the
product works (not statistics!)

Normal Distribution

95%
99.74%
-3

-2

-1

=0

Relationship between Process

Variability and Specification
Width

Three Sigma Capability

Mean output +/- 3 standard

deviations falls within the design
specification
It means that 0.26% of output falls
outside the design specification and
is unacceptable.
The result: a 3-sigma capable
process produces 2600 defects for
every million units produced

Six Sigma Capability

Six sigma capability assumes the

process is capable of producing output
where the mean +/- 6 standard
deviations fall within the design
specifications
The result: only 3.4 defects for every
million produced
Six sigma capability means smaller
variation and therefore higher quality

Process Control Charts

Control Charts show sample data plotted on a graph with
Center Line (CL), Upper Control Limit (UCL), and Lower
Control Limit (LCL).

Process Control
Chart
Out of control
Upper
control
limit
Process
average
Lower
control
limit

Sample number

10

Setting Control Limits

Control Charts

A graph that
establishes control
limits of a process
Control limits

upper and lower

bands of a control
chart

Types of charts

Attributes

p-chart
c-chart

Variables

range (R-chart)
mean (x bar
chart)

Types of Control Charts

Control chart for variables are used to

monitor characteristics that can be
measured, e.g. length, weight, diameter,
time, etc.
Control charts for attributes are used
to monitor characteristics that have
discrete values and can be counted, e.g.
% defective, number of flaws in a shirt,
number of broken eggs in a box, etc.

Where to Use Control

Charts

Process has a tendency to go out of control

Process is particularly harmful and costly if it goes
out of control
Examples

at the beginning of a process because it is a waste of

time and money to begin production process with bad
supplies
before a costly or irreversible point, after which product
is difficult to rework or correct
before and after assembly or painting operations that
might cover defects
before the outgoing final product or service is delivered

A Process Is in
Control If
1.
2.
3.

4.

no sample points outside limits

most points near process average
about equal number of points above
and below centerline
points appear randomly distributed

Control Charts for

Variables

Mean (x-bar) charts

Tracks the central tendency (the

average value observed) over time

Range (R) charts:

Tracks the spread of the distribution

over time (estimates the observed
variation)

x-bar and R charts

monitor different
parameters!

Constructing a X-bar Chart:

A quality control inspector at the Cocoa Fizz soft drink
company has taken three samples with four
observations each of the volume of bottles filled. If the
standard deviation of the bottling operation is .2 ounces,
use the data below to develop control charts with limits of 3
standard deviations for the 16 oz. bottling operation.
Time 1

Time 2

Time 3

Observation
1

15.8

16.1

16.0

Observation
2

16.0

16.0

15.9

Observation
3

15.8

15.8

15.9

Observation
4

15.9

15.9

15.8

Step 1:
Calculate the Mean of Each
Sample
Time 1

Time 2

Time 3

Observation 1

15.8

16.1

16.0

Observation 2

16.0

16.0

15.9

Observation 3

15.8

15.8

15.9

Observation 4

15.9

15.9

15.8

Sample means
(X-bar)

15.875

15.975

15.9

Step 2: Calculate the Standard

Deviation of the Sample Mean

.2

.1
n
4

Step 3: Calculate CL, UCL, LCL

Center line (x-double bar):

15.875 15.975 15.9

x
15.92
3

Control limits for 3 limits (z = 3):

UCLx x z x 15.92 3 .1 16.22

LCLx x z x 15.92 3 .1 15.62

Step 4: Draw the Chart

An Alternative Method for the Xbar Chart Using R-bar and the A2
Factor
Use this method
when sigma for the
process distribution
is not known. Use
factor A2 from Table
given here

Sample Size
(n)

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

Factor for x-Chart

A2
1.88
1.02
0.73
0.58
0.48
0.42
0.37
0.34
0.31
0.29
0.27
0.25
0.24
0.22

Factors for R-Chart

D3
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.08
0.14
0.18
0.22
0.26
0.28
0.31
0.33
0.35

D4
3.27
2.57
2.28
2.11
2.00
1.92
1.86
1.82
1.78
1.74
1.72
1.69
1.67
1.65

Step 1: Calculate the Range

of Each Sample and Average
Range
Time 1

Time 2

Time 3

Observation 1

15.8

16.1

16.0

Observation 2

16.0

16.0

15.9

Observation 3

15.8

15.8

15.9

Observation 4

15.9

15.9

15.8

Sample ranges
(R)

0.2

0.3

0.2

0.2 0.3 0.2

R
.233
3

Step 2: Calculate CL, UCL, LCL

Center line:

15.875 15.975 15.9

CL x
15.92
3

Control limits for 3 limits:

UCLx x A2 R 15.92 0.73 .233 16.09

LCLx x A2 R 15.92 0.73 .233 15.75

Control Chart for Range (RChart)

Center Line and Control
Limit calculations:

CL R

0.2 0.3 0.2

.233
3

UCL D4R 2.28(.233) .53

LCL D3R 0.0(.233) 0.0

Sample Size
(n)

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

Factor for x-Chart

A2
1.88
1.02
0.73
0.58
0.48
0.42
0.37
0.34
0.31
0.29
0.27
0.25
0.24
0.22

Factors for R-Chart

D3
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.08
0.14
0.18
0.22
0.26
0.28
0.31
0.33
0.35

D4
3.27
2.57
2.28
2.11
2.00
1.92
1.86
1.82
1.78
1.74
1.72
1.69
1.67
1.65

R-Bar Control Chart

Using x- bar and R-Charts

Together

Process average and process variability must be in control.

It is possible for samples to have very narrow ranges, but their
averages is beyond control limits.
It is possible for sample averages to be in control, but ranges
might be very large.

Control Charts for

Attributes

p-charts

uses portion defective in a sample

c-charts

uses number of defects in an item

Control Charts for

Attributes P-Charts & CCharts
Use P-Charts for quality characteristics

that are discrete and involve yes/no or

good/bad decisions

Percent of leaking caulking tubes in a box of 48

Percent of broken eggs in a carton

Use C-Charts for discrete defects when

there can be more than one defect per
unit

Number of flaws or stains in a carpet sample cut from

a production run
Number of complaints per customer at a hotel

Constructing a P-Chart:
A Production manager for a tire company has inspected
the number of defective tires in five random samples
with 20 tires in each sample. The table below shows the
number of defective tires in each sample of 20 tires.

Sample

Sample
Size (n)

Number
Defective

20

20

20

20

20

Step 1:
Calculate the Percent defective of Each
Sample and the Overall Percent Defective
(P-Bar)
Sampl Number
e
Defectiv
e

Sample
Size

Percent
Defectiv
e

20

.15

20

.10

20

.05

20

.10

20

.05

Total

100

.09

Step 2: Calculate the Standard

Deviation of P.

p(1-p) (.09)(.91)
p=
=
=0.064
n
20

Step 3: Calculate CL, UCL, LCL

Center line (p bar):

CL p .09

Control limits for 3 limits:

UCL p z

p z

.09

3(.064) .282

LCL

.09

3(.064) .102

Step 4: Draw the Chart

Constructing a C-Chart:
The number of
weekly customer
complaints are
monitored in a
large hotel.
Develop a three
sigma control
limits For a CChart using the
data table On the
right.

Week

Number of
Complaints

10

Total

22

Calculate CL, UCL, LCL

Center line (c bar):

#complaints
22
CL

2.2
# of samples
10

Control limits for 3 limits:

UCL c z c 2.2 3 2.2 6.65

LCL c z c 2.2 3 2.2 2.25 0

Control Chart Patterns

UCL

UCL
LCL
Sample observations
consistently below the
center line

LCL
Sample observations
consistently above the
center line

Control Chart Patterns

(cont.)
UCL
UCL
LCL
Sample observations
consistently increasing

LCL
Sample observations
consistently decreasing

Zones for Pattern Tests

=
3 sigma = x + A2R

UCL
Zone A

=
2 sigma = x + 2 (A2R)
3

Zone B
=
1 sigma = x + 1 (A2R)
3

Zone C
=
x

Process
average

Zone C

=
1 sigma = x - 1 (A2R)
3

Zone B
=
2 sigma = x - 2 (A2R)
3

Zone A
=
3 sigma = x - A2R

LCL
|
1

|
2

|
3

|
4

|
5

|
6

|
7

|
8

Sample number

|
9

|
10

|
11

|
12

|
13

Control Chart
Patterns

8 consecutive points on one side of the center line

8 consecutive points up or down across zones
14 points alternating up or down
2 out of 3 consecutive points in zone A but still inside the control
limits
4 out of 5 consecutive points in zone A or B

Performing a Pattern Test

SAMPLE
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

ABOVE/BELOW

UP/DOWN

ZONE

4.98
5.00
4.95
4.96
4.99
5.01
5.02
5.05
5.08
5.03

B
B
B
B
B

A
A
A
A

U
D
D
U
U
U
U
U
D

B
C
A
A
C
C
C
B
A
B

Sample Size

Attribute charts require larger sample sizes

50 to 100 parts in a sample

Variable charts require smaller samples

2 to 10 parts in a sample

Process Capability

Tolerances

design specifications reflecting

product requirements

Process capability

range of natural variability in a

process what we measure with control
charts

Process Capability

Design specifications (tolerances):

Determined by design engineers to define the

acceptable range of individual product
characteristics (e.g.: physical dimensions,
elapsed time, etc.)
Based upon customer expectations & how the
product works (not statistics!)

A measure of the ability of a process to

meet preset design specifications:

Determines whether the process can do what

we are asking it to do

Process Capability
Design
Specifications
(a) Natural variation
exceeds design
specifications; process
is not capable of
meeting specifications
all the time.
Process
Design
Specifications
(b) Design specifications
and natural variation the
same; process is capable
of meeting specifications
most of the time.
Process

Process Capability (cont.)

Design
Specifications
(c) Design specifications
greater than natural
variation; process is
capable of always
conforming to
specifications.
Process
Design
Specifications
(d) Specifications greater
than natural variation, but
process off center;
capable but some output
will not meet upper
specification.
Process

Process Capability Measures

Process Capability Ratio
Cp =

tolerance range
process range
upper specification limit lower specification limit
6

Computing Cp
Net weight specification = 9.0 oz 0.5 oz
Process mean = 8.80 oz
Process standard deviation = 0.12 oz

upper specification limit lower specification limit

Cp

6
9.5 - 8.5 = 1.39
6(0.12)

Process Capability Measures

Process Capability Index
x= - lower specification limit
3
Cpk = minimum

upper specification limit - x

3

,
=