Lecture 1:
An Overview of
Computers and
Programming
Languages
Objectives
In this chapter, you will:
Learn about different types of computers
Explore the hardware and software
components of a computer system
Learn about the language of a computer
Learn about the evolution of programming
languages
Examine high-level programming languages
Objectives (contd.)
Discover what a compiler is and what it does
Examine a C++ program
Explore how a C++ program is processed
Learn what an algorithm is and explore
problem-solving techniques
Become aware of structured design and objectoriented design programming methodologies
Become aware of Standard C++, ANSI/ISO
Standard C++, and C++11
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Introduction
Without software, the computer is useless
Software is developed with programming
languages
C++ is a programming language
C++ suited for a wide variety of
programming tasks
A Brief Overview of the
History of Computers
Early calculation devices
Abacus, Pascaline
Leibniz device
Jacquards weaving looms
Babbage machines: difference and analytic
engines
Hollerith machine
A Brief Overview of the
History of Computers
(contd.)
Early computer-like machines
Mark I
ENIAC
Von Neumann architecture
UNIVAC
Transistors and microprocessors
A Brief Overview of the
History of Computers
(contd.)
Categories of computers
Mainframe computers
Midsize computers
Micro computers (personal computers)
Elements of a Computer
System
Hardware
CPU
Main memory
Secondary storage
Input/Output devices
Software
Hardware
CPU
Main memory: RAM
Input/output devices
Secondary storage
Central Processing Unit and
Main Memory
Central processing unit
Brain of the computer
Most expensive piece of hardware
Carries out arithmetic and logical operations
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Central Processing Unit and
Main Memory (contd.)
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Central Processing Unit and
Main Memory (contd.)
Random access memory
Directly connected to the CPU
All programs must be loaded into main
memory before they can be executed
All data must be brought into main
memory before it can be manipulated
When computer power is turned off,
everything in main memory is lost
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Central Processing Unit and
Main Memory (contd.)
Main memory is an ordered sequence of
memory cells
Each cell has a unique location in main
memory, called the address of the cell
Each cell can contain either a
programming instruction or data
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Secondary Storage
Secondary storage: device that stores
information permanently
Examples of secondary storage:
Hard disks
Flash drives
Floppy disks
Zip disks
CD-ROMs
Tapes
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Input/Output Devices
Input devices feed data and programs into
computers
Keyboard
Mouse
Secondary storage
Output devices display results
Monitor
Printer
Secondary storage
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Software
Software: programs that do specific tasks
System programs control the computer
Operating system monitors the overall activity
of the computer and provides services such as:
Memory management
Input/output activities
Storage management
Application programs perform a specific task
Word processors
Spreadsheets
Games
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The Language of a
Computer
Analog signals: continuous wave forms
Digital signals: sequences of 0s and 1s
Machine language: language of a
computer; a sequence of 0s and 1s
Binary digit (bit): the digit 0 or 1
Binary code (binary number): a sequence
of 0s
and 1s
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The Language of a
Computer (contd.)
Byte:
A sequence of eight bits
Kilobyte (KB): 210 bytes = 1024 bytes
ASCII (American Standard Code for
Information Interchange)
128 characters
A is encoded as 1000001 (66th character)
3 is encoded as 0110011
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The Language of a
Computer (contd.)
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The Language of a
Computer (contd.)
EBCDIC
Used by IBM
256 characters
Unicode
65536 characters
Two bytes are needed to store a character
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The Evolution of
Programming Languages
Early computers were programmed in
machine language
To calculate wages = rate * hours in
machine language:
100100 010001
//Load
100110 010010
//Multiply
100010 010011
//Store
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The Evolution of
Programming Languages
(contd.)
Assembly language instructions are
mnemonic
Assembler: translates a program written in
assembly language into machine language
Using assembly language instructions,
wages = rate hours can be written as:
LOAD
MULT
STOR
rate
hour
wages
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The Evolution of
Programming Languages
(contd.)
High-level languages include Basic,
FORTRAN, COBOL, Pascal, C, C++, C#, and
Java
Compiler: translates a program written in a
high-level language into machine
language
The equation wages = rate hours can
be written in C++ as:
wages = rate * hours;
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Processing a C++ Program
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
cout << "My first C++ program." << endl;
return 0;
}
Sample Run:
My first C++ program.
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Processing a C++ Program
(contd.)
To execute a C++ program:
Use an editor to create a source program in C+
+
Preprocessor directives begin with # and are
processed by the preprocessor
Use the compiler to:
Check that the program obeys the language
rules
Translate into machine language (object
program)
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Processing a C++ Program
(contd.)
To execute a C++ program (cont'd.):
Linker:
Combines object program with other programs
provided by the SDK to create executable code
Library: contains prewritten code you can use
Loader:
Loads executable program into main memory
The last step is to execute the program
Some IDEs do all this with a Build or Rebuild
command
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Processing a C++ Program
(contd.)
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Programming with the
Problem AnalysisCoding
Execution Cycle
Algorithm:
Step-by-step problemsolving process
Solution achieved in finite
amount of time
Programming is a
process of problem
solving
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The Problem Analysis
CodingExecution Cycle
(contd.)
Step 1: Analyze the problem
Outline the problem and its requirements
Design steps (algorithm) to solve the problem
Step 2: Implement the algorithm
Implement the algorithm in code
Verify that the algorithm works
Step 3: Maintain
Use and modify the program if the problem
domain changes
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The Problem Analysis
CodingExecution Cycle
(contd.)
Thoroughly understand the problem and all
requirements
Does program require user interaction?
Does program manipulate data?
What is the output?
If the problem is complex, divide it into subproblems
Analyze and design algorithms for each subproblem
Check the correctness of algorithm
Can test using sample data
Some mathematical analysis might be required
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The Problem Analysis
CodingExecution Cycle
(contd.)
Once the algorithm is designed and
correctness verified
Write the equivalent code in high-level
language
Enter the program using text editor
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The Problem Analysis
CodingExecution Cycle
(contd.)
Run code through compiler
If compiler generates errors
Look at code and remove errors
Run code again through compiler
If there are no syntax errors
Compiler generates equivalent machine code
Linker links machine code with system
resources
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The Problem Analysis
CodingExecution Cycle
(contd.)
Once compiled and linked, loader can
place program into main memory for
execution
The final step is to execute the program
Compiler guarantees that the program
follows the rules of the language
Does not guarantee that the program will run
correctly
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Example 1-1
Design an algorithm to find the perimeter
and area of a rectangle
The perimeter and area of the rectangle
are given by the following formulas:
perimeter = 2 * (length + width)
area = length * width
34
Example 1-1 (contd.)
Algorithm:
Get length of the rectangle
Get width of the rectangle
Find the perimeter using the following
equation:
perimeter = 2 * (length + width)
Find the area using the following equation:
area = length * width
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Example 1-5
Calculate each students grade
10 students in a class; each student has taken
five tests; each test is worth 100 points
Design algorithms to:
Calculate the grade for each student and class
average
Find the average test score
Determine the grade
Data: students names; test scores
36
Example 1-5 (contd.)
Algorithm to determine the average test
score:
Get the five test scores
Add the five test scores
Suppose sum stands for the sum of the test
scores
Suppose average stands for the average test
score:
average = sum / 5;
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Example 1-5 (contd.)
Algorithm to determine the grade:
if average is greater than or equal to 90
grade = A
otherwise
if average is greater than or equal to 80 and less than 90
grade = B
otherwise
if average is greater than or equal to 70 and less than 80
grade = C
otherwise
if average is greater than or equal to 60 and less than 70
grade = D
otherwise
grade = F
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Example 1-5 (contd.)
Main algorithm is as follows:
totalAverage = 0;
Repeat the following for each student:
Get students name
Use the algorithm to find the average test score
Use the algorithm to find the grade
Update totalAverage by adding current
students average test score
Determine the class average as follows:
classAverage = totalAverage / 10
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Programming
Methodologies
Two popular approaches to programming
design
Structured
Object-oriented
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Structured Programming
Structured design:
Dividing a problem into smaller subproblems
Structured programming:
Implementing a structured design
The structured design approach is also
called:
Top-down (or bottom-up) design
Stepwise refinement
Modular programming
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Object-Oriented
Programming
Object-oriented design (OOD)
Identify components called objects
Determine how objects interact with each other
Specify relevant data and possible
operations to be performed on that data
Each object consists of data and
operations on that data
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Object-Oriented
Programming (contd.)
An object combines data and operations
on the data into a single unit
A programming language that implements
OOD is called an object-oriented
programming (OOP) language
Must learn how to represent data in
computer memory, how to manipulate
data, and how to implement operations
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Object-Oriented
Programming (contd.)
Write algorithms and implement them in a
programming language
Use functions to implement algorithms
Learn how to combine data and operations
on the data into a single unit called an
object
C++ was designed to implement OOD
OOD is used with structured design
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ANSI/ISO Standard C++
C++ evolved from C
C++ designed by Bjarne Stroustrup at Bell
Laboratories in early 1980s
Many different C++ compilers were available
C++ programs were not always portable
from one compiler to another
In mid-1998, ANSI/ISO C++ language
standards were approved
Second standard called C++11 approved in
2011
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Summary
Computer: electronic device that can
perform arithmetic and logical operations
Computer system has hardware/software
Central processing unit (CPU): brain
Primary storage (MM) is volatile; secondary
storage (e.g., disk) is permanent
Operating system monitors overall activity of
the computer and provides services
Various kinds of languages
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Summary (contd.)
Compiler: translates high-level language
into machine code
Algorithm: step-by-step problem-solving
process; solution in finite amount of time
Problem-solving process has three steps:
Analyze problem and design an algorithm
Implement the algorithm in code
Maintain the program
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Summary (contd.)
Structured design:
Problem is divided into smaller subproblems
Each subproblem is solved
Combine solutions to all subproblems
Object-oriented design (OOD): a program
is a collection of interacting objects
Object: data and operations on those data
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