A

PRESENTATI
ON
ON
JAYJEETMEMORY
MUKHERJEE

What is meant by
memory??
Incomputing,memoryrefers to the devices
used to store information for use in acomputer.
The termprimary memoryis used for storage
systems functioning at high-speed (i.e.RAM), as
a distinction fromsecondary memory, which
provides data storagethat is slow to access but
offering higher memory capacity.
If needed, primary memory can be stored in
secondary memory, through a memory
management technique called "virtual memory".

MAJOR
SUBDIVISIONS

MEMOR
Y

RAM
RO
M
VIRTUA
L
CACH
E

DOM ACCESS MEM

(RAM)

A random-access memory(RAM) device

allowsdataitems to be read and written in
roughly the same amount of time
regardless of the order in which data items
are accessed.
Today, it takes the form ofintegrated
circuits(ICs).
Associated withvolatiletypes of memory ,
where stored information is lost if power is
removed

Fig 1: RAM
memory
modules

A PEEK
INTO THE
PAST

First practical form of RAM was

theWilliams tube in 1947. It
stored data as electrically charged
spots on the face of acathode ray
tube. Since the electron beam of
the CRT could read and write the
spots on the tube in any order,
memory was random access.

Fig 2: A
Williams
tube

Fig 3: Block diagram of the

tube as appeared in the
patent

 Magnetic-core memorywas invented in 1947

and developed up until the mid-1970s.
A widespread form of random-access memory,
relying on an array of magnetized rings. By
changing the sense of each ring's
magnetization, data could be stored with one
bit stored per ring.
Since every ring had a combination of address
wires to select and read or write it, access to
any memory location in any sequence was
possible.

Fig 4: A 32 x 32 core
memory plane storing
1024 bits of data.

Fig 5: This microSD card holds (8 GB) data. It rests

on a section of magnetic-core memory that uses
64 cores to hold eight bytes. Thus the SD card

TYPES

 Static RAM(SRAM): Abit of datais

stored using the state of a six
transistormemory cell.
More expensive to produce
But is generally faster and requires
less power than DRAM

 Dynamic Random Access Memory(DRAM)

stores a bit of data using a transistor and
capacitor pair, which together comprise a
DRAMmemory cell.
The capacitor holds a high or low charge
(1 or 0, respectively), and the transistor
acts as a switch that lets the control
circuitry on the chip read the capacitor's
state of charge or change it.
Less expensive to produce than static RAM

Fig 6: A DRAM circ

ECENT DEVELOPMEN

 Several new types ofnon-volatileRAM,

which will preserve data while powered
down, are under development.
Technologies used includecarbon
nanotubes and approaches utilizing
themagnetic tunnel effect. In
2004,Infineon Technologiesunveiled a
16MiB(16220bytes) prototype .
There are two 2nd generation techniques
currently in development:
Thermal Assisted Switching(TAS)
Spin Torque Transfer(STT)
Whether some of these technologies will
be able to eventually take a significant

READ ONLY MEMOR

(ROM)

Data stored in ROM can only be

modified slowly, with difficulty, or
not at all, so it is mainly used to
distribute firmware i.e (software
very closely tied to
specifichardware, and unlikely to
need frequent updates).

In mask ROM, the data is physically encoded in the circuit, so it can

only be programmed during fabrication. This leads to a number of
disadvantages:
1. It is only economical to buy mask ROM in large quantities, since
users must contract with afoundry to produce a custom design.
2. The turnaround time between completing the design for a mask
ROM and receiving the finished product is long, for the same
reason.
3. Mask ROM is impractical forR&Dwork since designers frequently
need to modify the contents of memory as they refine a design.
4. If a product is shipped with faulty mask ROM, the only way to fix
it is torecallthe product and physically replace the ROM in every
unit shipped.

memory) , invented in 1956, allowed

users to program its contents exactly
once by physically altering its
structure with the application of highvoltage pulses.
This addressed problems 1 and 2
above, since a company can simply
order a large batch of fresh PROM
chips and program them with the
desired contents at its designers'
convenience.

 The 1971 invention

ofEPROM( Erasable
Programmable read-only
memory)essentially solved
problem 3, since EPROM
(unlike PROM) can be
repeatedly reset to its
unprogrammed state by
exposure to strong ultraviolet
light.

EEPROM( Electrically Erasable

Programmable read-only memory),
invented in 1983, went a long way
to solving problem 4, since an
EEPROM can be programmedinplaceif the containing device
provides a means to receive the
program contents from an external
source (for example, a personal
computer via aserial cable).

Fig 7: Many game consoles use

interchangeable ROM cartridges,

FERENCES WITH SR
OR

ADVANTAGES

 A ROM memory cell could be implemented

using fewer transistors than an SRAM
memory cell, since the latter needs
alatch(comprising 5-20 transistors) to retain
its contents, while a ROM cell might consist
of the absence (logical 0) or presence (logical
1) of one transistor connecting a bit line to a
word line.
Consequently, ROM could be implemented at
a lower cost-per-bitthan RAM for many years.

APPLICATIONS

 Everystored-program computermay use a form

ofnon-volatilestorage(that is, storage that
retains its data when power is removed) to store
the initial program that runs when the computer
is powered on or otherwise begins execution (a
process known asbootstrapping, often
abbreviated to "booting" or "booting up").
In modern PCs, "ROM" (or flash) is used to store
the basic bootstrappingfirmware for the main
processor, as well as the variousfirmware needed
to internally control self-contained devices such
asgraphic cards,hard disks,DVD drives,TFT
screens, etc., in the system.
Prevalent inembedded systems. These are in
everything fromindustrial robotstohome
appliancesandconsumer electronics

OTHER ROM DEVICES

Optical storageis the storage of data on an
optically readable medium.
Data is recorded by making marks in a pattern
that can be read back with the aid of light.
Usually a beam of laserlight precisely focuses
on a spinning disc.
Optical storagemedia includesCD-ROMwhich
is read-only (analogous to masked ROM).CDRisWrite Once Read Many(analogous to
PROM), whileCD-RWsupports erase-rewrite
cycles (analogous to EEPROM)

FLASH MEMORY

 Flash memoryis an electronicnonvolatilecomputer storage medium that can be

electrically erased and reprogrammed.
There are two main types of flash memory, which
are named after theNANDandNORlogic gates
The NAND type is primarily used inmain
memory,memory cards,USB flash drives,
Example applications of both types of flash
memory include personal computers,PDAs,
digital audio players,digital cameras, mobile
phones, video games and so on.

 Flash memory (bothNORandNANDtypes) was

invented by Dr.Fujio Masuokawhile working for
Toshiba in 1980.
According to Toshiba, the name "flash" was
suggested by Masuoka's colleague, Shji
Ariizumi, because the erasure process of the
memory contents reminded him of theflash of a
camera.
Masuoka and colleagues presented the
invention at theIEEE1984 International Electron
Devices Meeting(IEDM) held in San Francisco.

ADVANTAGES

 WhereEPROMs had to be completely

erased before being rewritten, NAND type
flash memory may be written and read in
blocks (or pages) which are generally
much smaller than the entire device.
NOR type flash allows a singlemachine
word(byte) to be writtento an erased
locationor read independently.
In addition to being non-volatile, flash
memory offers fast readaccess times, as
fast asdynamic RAM, although not as fast
asstatic RAM.

 Because erase cycles are slow, the large

block sizes used in flash memory erasing
give it a significant speed advantage over
non-flash EEPROM when writing large
amounts of data.
As of 2015, flash memory costs much less
than byte-programmable EEPROM and
has become the dominant memory type
wherever a system requires a significant
amount of non-volatile,solid-state
storage.

WORKING PRINCIPL

Flash memory stores

information in an array of
memory cells made
fromfloating-gate transistors. In
traditionalsingle-level cell(SLC)
devices, each cell stores only
one bit of information.

ATING GATE TRANSIS


placing
electrons
on
InCounter-intuitively,
flash memory, each memory cell
the
FG presence
sets
the transistor
the
logical
"0"

The
of atological
"0"
resembles
a standardMOSFET,
except
the
state. has two gates instead of one.
transistor
or "1"
is
sensed
by
Once
the FG is charged, the electrons in
On top is
the control gate (CG), as in other
determining
whether
there
is
itscreen(partially
cancel)
theelectric
MOS transistors, but below this there is a
fieldfrom
the
CG,
thus,
increasing
floating
gate (FG)
insulated
all around
by an
current
flowing
across
the
thethreshold
voltage(VT1) of the cell with
oxide
layer.
transistor
when
the
no
charged
FG
to
a
higher
Because the FG is electricallythreshold
isolated by its
voltage
(V
means
that aon
higher
intermediate
voltage
is
T2). This
insulating
layer,
electrons
placed
it are
voltageuntil
must
be are
applied
to the
CG
to
trapped
they
removed
by
another
asserted
on
the
CG.
make the of
channel
application
electricconductive.
field.
In order to read a value from the
transistor,
Fig 8: A an intermediate voltage
floatingthe
gatethreshold voltages (VT1& VT2)
between
transistorto the CG.
is applied

 A NOR flash cell can be programmed, or

set to a binary "0" value, by the following
procedure:
an elevated on-voltage (typically >5 V) is
applied to the CG
the source-drain current is sufficiently high
to cause some high energy electrons to
jump through the insulating layer onto the
FG, via a process calledhot-electron
injection

To erase a NOR flash cell (resetting it

to the "1" state), a large voltageof
the opposite polarityis applied
between the CG and source terminal,
pulling the electrons off the FG
throughquantum tunneling.

APPLICATIONS

 NAND flash is very suitable for use in massstorage devices, such asmemory cards.
NAND-based removable media format includes
Memory Stick.
A new generation of memory card formats,
including miniSDandmicroSD, andIntelligent
Stick, feature extremely small form factors. For
example, the microSD card has an area of just
over 1.5cm2, with a thickness of less than
1mm with capacities ranging from 64MBto
128GB, as of 2014.

CACHE MEMORY

 ACPU cacheis acacheused by thecentral

processing unit(CPU) of acomputerto reduce
the average time to access data from themain
memory.
The cache is a smaller, faster memory which
stores copies of the data from frequently
usedmain memorylocations.
Most CPUs have different independent caches,
including instruction and data caches, where
the data cache is usually organized as a
hierarchy of more cache levels (L1, L2 etc.)

 When the processor needs to

read from or write to a location
in main memory, it first checks
whether a copy of that data is
in the cache. If so, the
processor immediately reads
from or writes to the cache,
which is much faster than
reading from or writing to main
memory

 The diagram on the right shows two

memories. Each location in each
memory has a datum (a cache line).
Each location in each memory also has
an index, which is a unique number
used to refer to that location.
The index for a location in main
memory is called an address.
Each location in the cache has a tag
that contains the index of the datum
in main memory that has been
cached.

VIRTUAL MEMORY

 Virtual memorymaps memory

addressesused by a program,
calledvirtual addresses, intophysical
addressesin computer memory.
Memory management unitorMMU,
automatically translates virtual
addresses to physical addresses.
Software within the operating system
may extend these capabilities to provide
a virtual address space that can exceed
the capacity of real memory and thus
reference more memory than is
physically present in the computer.

Fig 9: Virtual
memory
illustration

ADVANTAGES

The primary benefits of virtual

memory include freeing applications
from having to manage a shared
memory space
Increased security due to memory
isolation
Being able to conceptually use more
memory than might be physically
available, using the technique
ofpaging.