Cellular

Automata

What are Cellular Automata?

It is a model that can be used to show how the
elements of a system interact with each other.
Each element of the system is assigned a cell.
The cells can be:
2-dimensional squares,
3-dimensional blocks
or another shape such as a hexagon.

Example of a two-dimensional
automaton
Here is a 2-d model, with
256 cells, each cell in this
example can be in either (0
or 1) state,
State 1 is encoded with
color black, 0 with white.
Each cell has eight
neighbors (excluding
itself).

Cellular Automata: the

specification
A neighborhood function that specifies
which of the cells adjacent cells affect its
state.
A transition function that specifies mapping
from state of neighbor cells to state of given
cell

Examples of neighborhoods

Different models.
(A,B,C,D,E,F,X) are cells

Each cell has a defined neighborhood.

For example, in a one dimension cellular automaton, a
neighborhood of radius one for a given cell would include the
cell to the immediate right and the cell to the immediate left.
The cell itself may or may not be included in the
neighborhood.

What is the main

characteristics of Cellular
Automata?
Synchronous computation
Infinitely-large grid:
but finite occupancy,
grows when needed

Various dimensions (1D, 2D, 3D, )

Typically fine-grain
If cells are distributed, they still need to communicate
across boundaries; they communicate once per cycle.

What are the Applications

of Cellular Automata?
Universal computers (embedded Turing
machines)
Self-reproduction
Diffusion equations
Artificial Life
Digital Physics

Some Examples of Application of

CA: Simulation Models

Game of Life
Gas particles: Billiard-ball model
Ising model: Ferro-magnetic spins
Heat equation simulation
Percolation models
Wire models
Lattice Gas models

One-Dimensional Cellular Automaton with Wraparound

The cells on the end may (or may not) be treated as
"touching" each other as if the line of cells were circular.
If we consider them as they touch each other, then the cell
(A) is a neighbor of cell (C)

Life - The Game

Life - Conways Game of Life

John H. Conway

Life - The Game

A cell dies or lives according to some transition rule

transition
rules

T=0

T=1

The world is round (flips over edges)

How many rules for Life? 20, 40, 100, 1000?

Life - The Game

Three simple rules
dies if number of alive neighbour cells =< 2

(loneliness)

dies if number of alive neighbour cells >= 5

(overcrowding)

lives is number of alive neighbour cells = 3

(procreation)

SOS - Lecture 4

Life - The Game

Life - The Game

Examples of the rules
loneliness

(dies if #alive =< 2)

overcrowding

(dies if #alive >= 5)

procreation

(lives if #alive = 3)

How to design the functions for rules?

How to design the functions for rules?

?

?
!

Life - Patterns
Stable

block

pond

ship

eater

time = 3

time = 4

Periodic

time = 1

time = 2

Moving

Time = 1

time = 2

time = 5

SOS - Lecture 4

Cellular Automata - Introduction

Traditional science
Newton laws
states

Now

1 second
later

problem: detailed description of states impossible etc etc

Heisenberg principle
states that it is impossible to precisely know
the speed and the location of a particle
basis of quantum theory

Beyond Life - Cellular Automata

A CA is an array of identically programmed automata, or cells,

which interact with one another in a neighbourhood and have
definite state

Cellular Automata - Array

Cellular Automata - Array

A CA is an array of identically programmed automata, or cells,

which interact with one another in a neighbourhood and have
definite state
1 45 34 12 90 4 27 7

1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0

H Q M S W E T G
1 dimensional
2 dimensional

G
A
X
N

O
W
R
I

M
J
E
Z

R
D
P
T

SOS - Lecture 4

Cellular Automata - Cells

Cellular Automata - Cells

A CA is an array of identically programmed automata, or cells,

which interact with one another in a neighbourhood and have
definite state
if #alive =< 2, then die
if #alive = 3, then live
if #alive >= 5, then die

if #alive =< 2, then

die
if #alive = 3, then live
if #alive >= 5, then
die
if #alive =< 2, then
die
if #alive = 3, then live
if #alive >= 5, then
die

SOS - Lecture 4

Cellular Automata - Interaction

Cellular Automata - Interaction

A CA is an array of identically programmed automata, or cells,

which interact with one another in a neighbourhood and have
definite state
Da rulez
if #alive =< 2, then die
if #alive = 3, then live
if #alive >= 5, then die

SOS - Lecture 4

CellularAutomata
Automata
- Neighborhood
Cellular
- Neighbourhood
A CA is an array of identically programmed automata, or cells,
which interact with one another in a neighborhood and have
definite state

Moore
neighborhood

Neumann
neighborhood

Cellular
Automata
Cellular
Automata
- States

SOS - Lecture 4

- States

A CA is an array of identically programmed automata, or cells,

which interact with one another in a neighborhood and have
definite state
2 possible states: ON OFF

Never infinite!

A
Z

26 possible states: A Z

G
A
X
N

O
W
R
I

M
J
E
Z

R
D
P
T

SOS - Lecture 4

Cellular Automata - Simple 1D example

cell#

10 11 12 13

The rules

time = 1

time = 2

time = 3

time = 4

time = 5

time = 6

time = 7

Example of a three-dimensional cellular

automaton

One difficulty with

three-dimensional
cellular automata is the
graphical
representation (on twodimensional paper or
screen)

Example of description of a cellular

automaton
In the initial configuration of the cellular automata,
each cell is assigned a "starting" value from the range
of possible values.
For example, if the range of possible values is 0 or 1,
then each cell would be assigned a 0 or a 1 in the initial
configuration.
Each value represents a color to the computer.
Each cell is associated a transition rule.

Initial

Step1

Step2

Here is an example
In this example, the initial configuration for all the cells is state
0, except for 4 cells in state 1.
The transition rule for this example, is :
a cell stays in state 1 (black), if it has two or three black
neighbors.
a cell changes to black, if it has exactly three black neighbors.
The next slide shows animation for this example

In this example:
Each cell has 8 neighbors,
Each cell can be in one possible value at any given time,
the transition takes place in discrete times
it helps to imagine a clock feeding all the cells.

Each State is encoded with a unique color,

The transition rule takes as input the present states (i.e., the
present values) of all of the cells in a given cell's neighborhood
and generates the next state (i.e., the next value) of the given
cell.
When applied to all of the cells individually in a cellular
automata, the next state of the whole cellular automata is
generated from the present state.
Then the next state of the cellular automata is copied to the
(new) present state and the process is repeated for as many
clock cycles as desired.

Let us now find

some real-life
examples!!!

Example of a Cellular Automaton:

VOTE
Vote is an example of the simplest
possible kind of eight-neighbor CA.
Vote is so simple because:
(1) Vote is a "one-bit rule" and,
(2) Vote is "totalistic.

What do these expressions mean?

Example of a Cellular Automaton:

VOTE
NineSums:
The NineSum for a cell (C) is the
sum of 1s in all the surrounding cells
(neighbors including cell (C)).
EightSum:
EightSum for a cell (C) is the sum of
1s in all the surrounding cells
(neighbors excluding cell (C)).

Example of a Cellular Automaton:

VOTE

Lets consider the above example to explain what NineSume

& EightSum are.
In this example, each cell can be in either 0 or 1 state.
Cell C has 8 neighbors, 3 of them are in state 1,
Then the EightSum for cell C is 3, NineSume is 4.

Example of a Cellular Automaton:

VOTE
Vote is a one-bit rule.
The cells of Vote have only two possible
states: on or off, zero or one.
Choosing between two options requires
one bit of information, and this is why
we call Vote a one-bit rule.

Example of a Cellular
Automaton: VOTE
Vote is totalistic.
A totalistic rule updates a cell C by forming the
EightSum of the eight neighbors, adding in the value of
C itself to get the full NineSum, and then determining
the cell's new value strictly on the basis of where the
NineSum lies in the range of ten possibilities 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8, and 9.
Under a totalistic rule, a cell's next state depends only on
the total number of bits in its nine-cell neighborhood.
Let us present more detail of this example.

Example of a Cellular Automaton:

VOTE

How many different eight-neighbor

1-bit totalistic rules are there?
A rule like this is completely specified by a ten-entry
lookup table which gives the new cell value for each of
the ten possible neighborhood NineSums.
Each of the entries has to be 0 or 1, so filling in such a
lookup table involves making ten consecutive binary
decisions, which can be done in 210 different ways.

Example of a Cellular Automaton:

VOTE
Each time a cell is updated, the NineSum of the cell and its eight neighbors is formed.
The idea behind Vote's rule is that if most cells in your neighborhood are 1, then you go
to 1, and if most cells in your neighborhood are 0, then you go to 0.
What do we mean by "most cells in your neighborhood?"
Since there are nine cells in your neighborhood, the most obvious interpretation is to
assume that "most" means "five or more".
Here is the lookup table for this simple majority rule.

Many models of life can be created like this that illustrate

congestion, scarcity of resources, competing species, etc.

At this time we have an idea about

what the Cellular Automata is.
Let
Let us
us now
nowtry
try to
to get
get closer
closerto
to the
the
basic
basic digital
digital logic
logic aspects
aspects
and
and find
find aa different
different definition
definition for
for
Cellular
CellularAutomata.
Automata.

Another definition of a Cellular

Automaton
Let us first try to define the cellular automata as
follows:
it is a Finite State Machine, with one transition function for
all the cells,
this transition function changes the current state of a cell
depending on the previous state for that cell and its
neighbors.

All we need to do is to:

design the transition function,
set the initial state.

Cells here use Flip-Flops.

In general, registers.

What is the advantage of the CA over

standard FSM?
One advantage is that each cell uses as many data as number of
neighbor cells to calculate its next state.
Next state represents an information that will be available for all
neighbors including itself,
The goal is to design the transition function for these cells
There is no State Assignment problem because all cells are the same
Transition function is the same for all cells.
But the complexity is to design the Transition function that fits our
application!!!

Formally, a CA with limited size is an FSM, but this model is

not practical because of too many states of FSM, Cartesian
Product of individual CA states.

Cellular Automata are often used to

visualize complex dynamic
phenomena
Images that represent evolutions of states of
different cellular automata are used:
each cell can be in state (0 or 1or 2 ..or n),
each state is encoded with a unique color,
each cellular automata has its own transition rule.

Oil&Water Simulation
(Bruce Boghosian, Boston Univ.)

http://physics.bu.edu/~bruceb/MolSim/

SOS - Lecture 4

Cellular Automata - Pascal Triangle

SOS - Lecture 4

Cellular Automata - Beauty

Cellular Automata - Wow! examples

Surfactant Formation
(Bruce Boghosian, Boston Univ.)

Other Application of CA:

Consumer-resource
interactions
Key: One species exploits the other in some way

Predator-prey
Herbivore-plant
Host-parasite/parasitoid
Host-Pathogen

SOS - Lecture 6

Predator-Prey (Lotka-Volterra)

SOS - Lecture 6

Predator-Prey - Basics
Applicable to other problems:
herbivore-plant
parasitoid-host
oscillations in the population size of both predator and
prey
peak of the predator's oscillation slightly behind the peak
of the prey's oscillation

SOS - Lecture 6

Predator-Prey - Formulas

dP/dt = c0P - d0PR

dR/dt = c1R + d1PR
P = Prey
R = pRedator

SOS - Lecture 6

Predator-Prey - History
Population growth

Industrial
Evolution

Differential Equations

Biology
Mathematics

Lotka-Volterra

SOS - Lecture 6

Predator-Prey - Assumptions
population will grow exponentially when the predator is
absent
predator population will starve in the absence of the prey
population
predators can consume infinite quantities of prey
populations are moving randomly through a environment

SOS - Lecture 6

Predator-Prey - History
Alfred Lotka (american) and Vito Volterra (italian)
Volterra wanted to model the fish populations in the Adriatic Sea
Published his findings in Nature:
dP/dt = c0P - d0PR
dR/dt = c1R + d1PR
Received letter from Lotka about
previous similar publications of Lotka
himself
Developed model independently

SOS - Lecture 6

Predator-Prey (ideal)

SOS - Lecture 6

Predator-Prey (for real)

Huffaker (1958)

SOS - Lecture 6

Predator-Prey - Correct?

SOS - Lecture 6

On the side - About Models

must be simple enough to be mathematically tractable,
but complex enough to represent a system realistically.
shortcomings of the Lotka-Volterra model is its reliance
on unrealistic assumptions.
For example, prey populations are limited by food
resources and not just by predation, and no predator
can consume infinite quantities of prey.
Many other examples of cyclical relationships
between predator and prey populations have been
demonstrated in the laboratory or observed in nature,
which are better explained by other models.

Characteristics of these types

of problems
Consumers can impact resources
Consumers and resources are dynamic in space
and time
Models can result in complex dynamics

Complex web of interactions

Two consumers compete
for resources

Competition (true)
Consumer 1

Consumer 2

Resource

Apparent Competition caused

by consumer.

Top Consumer

Predator-prey simulation
Cellular Automata
http://www.stensland.net/java/erin.html

Examples: Impacts of predators

Marine organisms.
Many lay 10,000 - 1,000,000 + eggs.
On average, all but one become an adult

Desert/arid grassland transition.

Dominant vegetation type depends on small
mammal seed predation.

present

removed

Cascading Impacts of predators

Islands in the Bahamas. Simple food webs
Lizards

+ or - ?

Web Spiders

Herbivorous
Arthropods

Plants

Lizards eat
spiders,
spiders eat
arthropods,
etc.
Less arthropods will
cause less or more
lizards?

Biomedical simulations: what can be

done?
Lizards feed at two trophic levels
They eat spiders (predators) and insect herbivores
Results in complex responses

Spiders increase by 3.1 times in absence of lizards

predation and competition

Arthropods (control vs. removal).

Increase with lizards removed but not much

Damage to plants depends on what predator is dominant
Lizards eat terrestrial bugs
Spiders eat flying insects

Remove lizards, see what happens

This color shows
what happens with
lizard removal

Spiders

Insect herbivores

Plants

SOS - Lecture 4

Classification of Cellular
Automata

Cellular Automata - Classification

dimension

1D, 2D nD

neighborhood Neumann, Moore for 1D

(2D => r is used to denote the radius)
number of states

1,2,, n

SOS - Lecture 4

Cellular Automata - Types

Cellular Automata - Types

Symmetric CAs
Spatial isotropic
Legal
Totalistic
Wolfram

Cellular Automata Steven Wolfram

SOS - Lecture 4

Cellular Automata - Wolfram

I.

Always reaches a state in which

all cells are dead or alive

II.

Periodic behavior

III. Everything occurs randomly

IV. Unstructured but complex behavior

Cellular Cellular
Automata -Automata
Wolfram

SOS - Lecture 4

Steven Wolfram

= chance that a cell is alive in the next state

0.0

0.1

II

0.2

0.3

IV

0.4

0.5

III

What do these classes look like?

Cellular Cellular
Automata -Automata
Complexity -

SOS - Lecture 4

Complexity

What is the total number of possibilities with CAs?

Lets look at total number of possible rules
For 1D CA:
23 = 8 possible neighborhoods (for 3 cells)
28 = 256 possible rules
For 2D CA:
29 = 512 possible neighborhoods
2512 possible rules (!!)

SOS - Lecture 4

Cellular Cellular
Automata -Automata
Alive or not?
Alive or not?

Can CA or Game of Life represent life as we know

it?
A computer can be simulated in Life
Building blocks of computer (wires, gates,
registers) can be simulated in Life as patterns
(gliders, eaters etcetera)
Possible to build a computer, possible to build life?

Universal Machines - Cellular Automata

Stanislaw Ulam (1909 - 1984)

Universal Machines - Cellular Automata

conceived in the 1940s
Stanislaw Ulam - evolution of graphic
constructions generated by simple rules
Ulam asked two questions:
can recursive mechanisms explain
the complexity of the real?
Is complexity then only apparent,
the rules themselves being simple?

ZOS Course book

1999/2000
Stanislaw Ulam
Memorial Lectures

SOS - Lecture 4

Universal Machines - Turing Machines

Alan Turing (1912-1954)

Universal Machines - Turing Machines

Data
(e.g., resignation letter)

Program
(e.g., Microsoft Word)

Are they really this different?

No, theyre all just 0s and 1s!
Lets look at a Turing Machine!

SOS - Lecture 4

Universal Machines - Neumann Machines

John von Neumann (1903- 1957)

Universal Machines - Neumann Machines

John von Neumann interests himself on theory of
self-reproductive automata
worked on a self-reproducing kinematon
(like the monolith in 2001 Space Odyssey)
Ulam suggested von Neumann to use cellular spaces
extremely simplified universe

SOS - Lecture 4

Self-Reproduction
Conway - Game of Life

Cellular Automata
Turing - Universal Machines

Langton - Reproducing Loops

Self-reproduction

von Neumann - Reproduction

Self-Reproduction
An example of Self Reproducing
Cellular Automata

Self-Reproduction

Self Reproduction

Langton Loops
8 states
29 rules

SOS - Lecture 4

Summary

Summary

SOS - Lecture 4

Ulam

Universal Machines

Turing

Turing Machines

von Neumann

von Neumann Machines

Conway

Game of Life

Langton

Self Reproduction

Sources
1. Seth Copen Goldstein, CMU
2. David E. Culler, UC. Berkeley,
3. [email protected]
4. Syeda Mohsina Afroze
and other students of Advanced Logic Synthesis, ECE 572,
1999 and 2000.
5. Russell Deaton, The University of Memphis
6. Nouraddin Alhagi, class 572
7. Schut, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam

Computers,
Life and
Complexity
http://ivytech7.cc.in.us/mathsci/complexity/life/index.htm

Allen Shotwell
Ivy Tech State College

Overview
Start Specific - Game of Life
Globalize - Cellular Automata
Speculate - Analogies and Stuff

Game of Life Overview

History
The Rules
Manual Life
Computerized Life
Emergent Behavior
Parameter Effects
FOR MORE INFO...

http://www.reed.edu/~jwalton/gameoflife.html

Game of Life - History

Ulam and Von Neumann
John Horton Conway
April 1970, Scientific American, Martin Gardner
Past time for computer programmers and
mathematicians

The Rules
Each cell has eight possible neighbors (four on its sides,
four on its corners).
The rules for survival, death and birth are as follows:

survival: if a live cell has two or three live neighbors, it

survives.

death: if a live cell has less than two or more than three
live neighbors, it dies.

birth: if a dead cell has exactly three live neighbors, it is

born.

Manual Life
Try it

Computerized Life
Java - http://remus.rutgers.edu/~kenn/java/Life/
DOS ftp://ftp.cs.jhu.edu/pub/callahan/conways_life/life16.zi
p
X Windows ftp://ftp.cs.jhu.edu/pub/callahan/conways_life/xlife3.0.tar.gz
Windows 95 http://www.mindspring.com/~alanh/Life32/
Windows 3.1 ftp://ftp.cs.jhu.edu/pub/callahan/conways_life/wlife.zip

Emergent behavior
A. Simple Life Forms
B. The Glider
C. The Eater
D. Methuselahs
E. Glider Guns and Puffer Trains
F. Spaceships
FOR MORE INFO...

http://www.reed.edu/~jwalton/gameoflife.html

A. Simple Life Forms

Simple Life forms can generally be grouped into two categories:
still-lifes and blinkers.
Still-lifes are stable forms that do not change over successive
generations unless disturbed by other live cells.
The block and the beehive are two common forms of still-lifes.
Blinkers are periodic Life forms which have predictable behavior.
The traffic light is a quite common form of blinker that has a
period of two.

B. The Glider
The glider is a unique Life form.
Technically, it is a blinker, having a period of four.
However, it is not a stationary blinker, but one that
travels a single diagonal cell ever four generations.
If a glider is capable of escaping the milieu of a
changing pattern, it travels off into the distance
forever.

Cheshire:
Cheshire:
Generation
Generation1:
1:

Cheshire:
Cheshire:
Generation
Generation33

Cheshire:
Cheshire:
Generation
Generation88
and
andon
on

C. The Eater
The eater is a still-life that is remarkable for
it's capacity to devour gliders, provided that
the glider approaches it at a certain angle.

Eater:
Eater:
Generation
Generation11

Eater:
Eater:
Generation
Generation16
16

Eater:
Eater:
Generation
Generation22
22

Eater:
Eater:
Generation
Generation48
48

D. Methuselahs
Methuselahs are initial patterns of live cells that require
a large number of generations to stabilize.
The smallest and perhaps most famous methuselah is
the R-pentomino which takes 1103 generations before
it reaches a stable (periodic) state.
The acorn is perhaps the longest lived methuselah
known, requiring over 5000 generations to reach
periodicity.

R-pentomino
R-pentomino
Generation
Generation11: :

E. Glider Guns and Puffer Trains

Glider guns and puffer trains are two unique Life forms
that produce populations of live cells that grow without
limit.
The glider gun simply continues to produce gliders
The puffer train travels endlessly in a horizontal
direction, leaving a trail of smoke behind it.
Both were discovered by Bill Gosper of the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Puffer
PufferTrain:
Train:
Generation
Generation11

Puffer
PufferTrain:
Train:
Generation
Generation54
54

F. Spaceships
A spaceship is a finite pattern of live cells in Life that after a certain
number of generations reappears, but translated in some direction by a
nonzero distance.
Translation is measured by the shortest king-wise connected path
between two cells.
So two cells adjacent to each other are one cell apart, whether or not
the cells are adjacent orthogonally or diagonally.
The process of translating after a certain number of generations is
called moving or traveling.
The number of generations before the pattern reappears (but translated)
is called the period of the spaceship.
(This is analogous to the period of stationary oscillators.)

F. Spaceships (Cont)
Many spaceships appear to be the same pattern after a number of
generations,
but on closer examination are not really the same.

Instead of being merely translated, they are also reflected (or

flipped) as in a mirror.
After twice that number of generations, the spaceship does
reappear in its original form, with just a translation.
The period always measures this full number of generations.
Spaceships which show their mirror image after half their period
are called glide- reflection spaceships.

Example
ExampleSpace
Space
Ship:
Ship:
Generation
Generation11

Example
Example
Spaceship:
Spaceship:
Generation
Generation55

Additional Life/CA Forms

There are many other variations on these themes and many
methods (in some cases) of ways of producing the ones shown
here.
ANTS (http://math.math.sunysb.edu/%7Escott/ants/)
High Life (http://www.cs.jhu.edu/~callahan/altrule.html)
Day and Night (http://www.cs.jhu.edu/~callahan/altrule.html)
L-systems

FOR MORE INFO...

http://www.cs.jhu.edu/~callahan/lexiconf.htm

Cellular Automata
Extension of Life
Different Rules
Varying Dimensions
FOR MORE INFO...

http://alife.santafe.edu/alife/topics/cas/ca-faq/ca-faq.html

Cellular Automata and Emergence

Mandelbrots Fictitious Example
Sierpinski gasket arising from a grid of
spins. N=-1 if S(t-1, n-1) = S(t-1,n+1)
else n=+1

1D CA and Attractor Types

Analysis of Emergence in CA
Wolframs Classification
Mean Field Theory
Parameter
Hollands CGP
FOR MORE INFO...

http://www.santafe.edu/~hag/complex1/complex1.html

Wolframs Classifications
Four Classifications
Class I Very Dull
Class II Dull
Class III Interesting
Class IV Very Interesting

FOR MORE INFO...

http://alife.santafe.edu/alife/topics/cas/ca-faq/classify/classify.html
S. Wolfram, Statistical Mechanics of CA, Rev. Mod. Phys. 55:601-644 (1983)

Class I Very Dull

All Configurations map to a
homogeneous state

Class II Dull
All configurations map to
simple, separated periodic
structures

Class III Interesting

Produces chaotic patterns
(impossible to predict long time
behavior)

Class IV Very Interesting

Produces propagating structures,
may be used in computations (The
Game of Life)

Mean Field Theory

Statistical Picture of performance
Based on
The probability of a cell being in a certain state
The probability of a block (certain specified states in
specified locations) at a given time.
No correlation between cell probabilities

Approximation which improves in large

time or dimensional limits

 Parameter
Measure of the distribution of state transitions
(alive to dead/dead to alive)
Fraction of the rule table containing
neighborhoods with nonzero transitions.
Low , low Wolfram class
High , higher Wolfram class
Works bests in the limit of infinite number of
states.

Hollands CGP
Constrained Generating Procedures - models
Rules that are simple can generate emergent behavior
Emergence centers on interactions that are more than the
summing of independent activities
Persistent emergent phenomena can serve as components
of more complex emergent phenomena
FOR MORE INFO...

Holland, Emergence, Helix Books (Addison Wesley), 1998

CA as Turing Machines
Glider Guns as Logic Gates
Universal Turing Machines

FOR MORE INFO...

http://cgi.student.nada.kth.se/cgi-bin/d95-aeh/get/umeng

Life and Music Generation

Brian Eno
http://www.cs.jhu.edu/~callahan/enoexcerpt.html

Life and Universal Computing

BIT REPRESENTATION
NOT Gate
AND GATE
NAND GATE
UNIVERSAL GATE
BASIC DIGITAL CIRCUITS

BIT REPRESENTATION
The Glider can be used to represent a 1
The absence of a Glider can be used to
represent a 0
A string of Gliders with equal spacing is a
binary number.

The NOT Gate

The Collision of two gliders at the proper
angle eliminates them.
The Gun can be used as a source of
continuous, equally spaced gliders
A stream of gliders representing bits can be
placed so that it intersects with the Guns
output to produce a NOT Gate

The AND Gate

The Output of a Note Gate whose
in input is A (NOT A) is combined
with a second stream, B
The Collisions of B and Not A are
the same as B AND A

THE NAND Gate

The output of B AND A shot
through another gun stream
produces B NAND A

BASIC DIGITAL CIRCUITS

The Adder

Artificial Life
Artificial Life ("AL" or "Alife") is the name given to a
new discipline that studies "natural" life by attempting
to recreate biological phenomena from scratch within
computers and other "artificial" media.
Alife complements the traditional analytic approach of
traditional biology with a synthetic approach in
which, rather than studying biological phenomena by
taking apart living organisms to see how they work,
one attempts to put together systems that behave like
living organisms.

Simulators
The phrase Artificial Life is somewhat allencompassing including things such as:
artificial intelligence,
simulation of natural life,
etc.

To narrow the discussion some, we will focus

on Artificial Life Simulations.

Fundamental Algorithms of
ALife Simulation
Artificial life simulation can be subdivided
into categories based on the algorithm used.
The subdivisions are
Neural Networks
Evolutionary Algorithms
Cellular Automata

Neural Networks
Input-output neurons organized into highly
connected networks.
Used for higher-order processes such as
learning.
(Brain Model)

Evolutionary Algorithms
Iterative algorithms that contain a population of
individuals that compete. Each iteration
produces survivors who compete the best.
There are several methods.
Genetic Algorithm
Genetic Programming
Evolutionary Programming
Classifier Systems
Lindenmeyer Systems

Genetic Algorithm
By J. Holland.
A population of individuals is chosen at random.
The fitness of the individuals is determined
through a defined function.
Fit individuals are kept and unfit ones are not.
The new population undergoes the process.
Individuals are in practice arrays of bits or
characters.

Genetic Programming
Similar to the GA except the individuals are
computer programs in a lisp environment.

Evolutionary Programming
Start with a random population.
Mutate the individuals to produce the new
population.
Assess fitness of offspring (new population)

Classifier Systems
J. Holland. Early application of Gas.
CFSs use evolutionary algorithm to adapt their behavior toward a
changing ENVIRONMENT.
Holland envisioned a cognitive system capable of classifying the
goings on in its ENVIRONMENT, and then reacting to these
goings on appropriately.
So what is needed to build such a system? Obviously, we need
(1) an environment;
(2) receptors that tell our system about the goings on;
(3) effectors, that let our system manipulate its environment; and
(4) the system itself, conveniently a "black box" in this first approach, that has
(2) and (3) attached to it, and "lives" in (1).

Lindenmeyer Systems
A system of rules used to model growth and
development of organisms.

Cellular Automata
Discrete system of cells that iterate based a set
of rules (game of Life, etc)

A Life Simulations
Many Simulations based on the algorithms described
have been produced.
These Simulations can be divided into two types.
Simulation of a particular life form using one or
more algorithms, and Instantiation of artificial life
(or the bottom-up approach).

Simulation
Examples of simulations of life forms include
ANTS
BOIDS
Gene Pool
Biotopia

ANTS
Simulation of Ant behavior using a CA where each cell is
either a left or right turn.
Ants move through the cells following the turn commands
and changing the value of the cell to its opposite.
Instead of attempting to represent a living organism or
process, natural laws are invoked in an artificial
biosphere.
Tom Rays Tierra is an example.
Avida is another.

BOIDS
Each boid has direct access to the whole scene's geometric
description, but reacts only to flockmates within a certain small
radius of itself.
The basic flocking model consists of three simple steering
behaviors:
1.Separation: steer to avoid crowding local flockmates.
2.Alignment: steer towards the average heading of local
flockmates.
3.Cohesion: steer to move toward the average position of local
flockmates.

BOIDS - Cont.
In addition, the more elaborate behavioral model
included predictive obstacle avoidance and goal
seeking.
Obstacle avoidance allowed the boids to fly through
simulated environments while dodging static objects.
For applications in computer animation, a low priority
goal seeking behavior caused the flock to follow a
scripted path.

Gene Pool
Uses a genetic algorithm for animation of
creatures based on a response to a stimulus.
In the gene pool, creatures try to reproduce
by contacting other creatures.
Those creatures who move around better
contact more of their fellow creatures and
reproduce more.

Biotopia
Similar to Gene Pool except creatures thrive on their
ability to find food.
If they dont find enough, they lose energy and
die.
They reproduce by finding life cells which they
collect until they have enough to produce
offspring.

Instantiation (bottom-up
approach)
Instead of attempting to represent a living
organism or process, natural laws are
invoked in an artificial biosphere.
Tom Rays Tierra is an example.
Avida is another.

Tierra
Organisms in Tierra are machine-language
programs.
The organism/program is executed by moving
through its list of instructions.
Instructions in an organism may be altered
through mutation or swapping instructions with
other organisms and the organism will still be
executable.

Tierra - cont.
There are 32 instructions available. Each is
specified by a 5 bit number (any possible 5
bit number is therefore valid). Mutation can
be caused by flipping a bit.

Tierra - cont.
The Tierra system sets up a virtual computer
with a CPU and memory. Organisms use the
CPU to execute their instructions and reside
in portions of the memory.

Tierra - cont.
The process normally starts with a single
organism which is self reproducing. It is
executed over and over producing copies of
itself which are stored in the memory. The
Tierra user introduces mutations in some of
offspring.

Tierra - cont.
Most mutations produce organisms that dont
reproduce at all. However, occasionally,
mutations produce organisms that are better
at reproduction.

Tierra - cont.
When the memory of the virtual computer is
full, some organisms must be removed. The
system removes organisms based on how
well the work. For example, it is possible to
define error conditions for certain
executions and remove those organisms that
produce errors.

A Life and Evolution

Alife a "living system The distinction between
it and carbon based systems is a matter of
semantics. As a result, the study of an
instantiation of a-life is not a simulation for the
purposes of drawing analogies to other living
systems.

Statistical Mechanics and A life

Evolution
Observation of the entropy of an a-life
system allows some understanding of the
self criticality of life.

Consider a set of N strings of Ng

types such that Ng<N
Number of strings(ni) (at some time, t+1) of a particular type is a
function of the rate of replication, probability of string mutating to
a different type and probability of a string of a different type
mutating into this one.
ni(t+1)-ni(t) = (I -< >-Rl)ni+(N/Ng)Rl
where is the replication rate, Rl is the mutation rate and (N/N g)Rl is
the rate at which other strings mutate into this one.

There is one type that has the

best growth rate (increases its
number better than others).
best

Running such a system on Avida,

measure its "Shannon" entropy.
The entropy related to information
theory which can be best defined
as the measure of the information
content of the system. More
simply, a measure of the number
of different types of strings.
S = -(ni/N)log(ni/N)

Entropy over time looks like

attached graph.

Interpretation: System is in equilibrium

except when occasional mutations
produce a new type that has a better
growth rate that the best so far. Under
these conditions, the entropy drops
because the new string dominates the
system. After a time, the new string
produces mutated offspring with similar
or lesser growth factors.

This change of state can be considered

the equivalent of a sand piles avalanche
and a result of self organized criticality.

Entropy does not always return to its

original value. Interpretation: A string
can have "cold Spots" and "hot spots".
Cold spots are parts of the string that,
when mutated, do not increase the
growth factor. Hot spots are parts of
the string that, when mutated, do
increase the growth factor.

When a new string is produced and causes a "change

in state", the new string has attained new information
for producing a better growth rate.
This information is stored in cold spots for the string.
Since there is more information than in previous, less
effective genes, the number of hot spots is reduced.
Information within the string is added at the expense of
entropy (information or differences in string types for
the whole system).

Fractals and Zipf's Law and A

Life
Power law distributions are known to exist
within certain quantities in living systems. For
example, frequency distribution of number of
taxa with a certain number of sub taxa. Also,
frequency distribution of proteins of different
lengths and of codons. Power laws can be
indicative of self-organized criticality.

The taxa example can be expected if there

is no time scale governing the length of
time a species dominates a population and
the number of subfamilies is proportional
to the length of time a certain species
dominates. In addition, the taxa

example is found to have fractal

dimensions.

In general, if the distribution of

waiting times between events
follows a power law, the system is
in a self-organized critical state.
Analogy: the taxa study. Another example, wait
times between entropy drops (changes in state) is
measured in a A-life simulation using Tierra (shown
in attached graph).

If this power law distribution (in alife

example) is fractal, then the same results
could be expected for a much longer
running simulation. This means the system
can make huge jumps and magnitudes and
still retain its same structure. In other
words, a large number of strings could be
wiped out very quickly without external
interference.

Resources
On Modeling Life, Chris Adami
http://xxx.lanl.gov/abs/adap-org/9405002

A Mathematical Theory of Communication. C.E.

Shannon
http://cm.belllabs.com/cm/ms/what/shannonday/paper.html

Self Organizing Criticality in Living Systems

http://xxx.lanl.gov/abs/adap-org/9401001