HYPOTHESIS TESTING

Hyelim Son

Chapter 7. Hypothesis Testing

7-1 Review and Preview
7-2 Basics of Hypothesis Testing
7-3 Testing a Claim about a Proportion
7-4 Testing a Claim About a Mean
7-5 Testing a Claim About a Standard Deviation or
Variance

Review
The two main activities of inferential statistics are using
sample data to:
(1) estimate a population parameter
(2) Or test a hypothesis or claim about a population
parameter.
Confidence intervals allowed us to find ranges of
reasonable values for parameters we were interested in.
Hypothesis testing will let us make decisions about specific
values of parameters or relationships between parameters.

Chapter Objective
Develop the ability to conduct hypothesis tests for claims
made about
(1) a population proportion p
(2) a population mean
(3) a population standard deviation .

Examples of Hypotheses that can be Tested

Genetics: The Genetics & IVF Institute claims that its

XSORT method allows couples to increase the probability
of having a baby girl.

Business: A newspaper cites a PriceGrabber.com survey

of 1631 subjects and claims that a majority have heard of
Kindle as an e-book reader.

Health: It is often claimed that the mean body temperature

is 98.6 degrees. We can test this claim using a sample of
106 body temperatures with a mean of 98.2 degrees.

Chapter 7. Hypothesis Testing

7-1 Review and Preview
7-2 Basics of Hypothesis Testing
7-3 Testing a Claim about a Proportion
7-4 Testing a Claim About a Mean
7-5 Testing a Claim About a Standard Deviation or
Variance

Main Objective
The main objective of this chapter is to develop the ability
to conduct hypothesis tests for claims made about a
population proportion p, a population mean , or a
population standard deviation .

Introduction
In hypothesis testing, we use sample data to choose

between two competing hypotheses concerning the

values of one or more population parameters
In hypothesis testing, there are 2 choices, the null

hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis.

Think of it like a jury trial.
There are two options: innocent and guilty.
You assume innocence until shown guilty beyond a reasonable
doubt.

Key Concept
This section presents individual components of a
hypothesis test. We should know and understand the
following:
How to identify the null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis
from a given claim, and how to express both in symbolic form
How to calculate the value of the test statistic, given a claim
and sample data
How to choose the sampling distribution that is relevant
How to identify the P-value or identify the critical value(s)
How to state the conclusion about a claim in simple and
nontechnical terms

Definitions
hypothesis is a claim or statement about a population
A
characteristic.

: The mean body temperature of humans is less than 37 celsius

: The XSORT method of gender selection increases the probability
that a baby born will be a girl, so the probability of being a girl is
greater than 0.5
: The population of college students has IQ scores with a standard
deviation equal to 15.

A hypothesis test is a procedure for testing a claim about a

population characteristic.

Null Hypothesis

The null hypothesis (H0) is a statement that the value of

a population parameter (such as proportion, mean, or
standard deviation) is equal to some claimed value.

We test the null hypothesis directly in the sense that we

assume it is true and reach a conclusion to either reject
H0 or fail to reject H0.

The null hypothesis is often the reverse of what the

experimenter actually believes; it is put forward in the
hope that the data will contradict it.

Alternative Hypothesis

The alternative hypothesis (denoted by H1) is the

statement that the parameter has a value that
somehow differs from the null hypothesis.

The symbolic form of the alternative hypothesis must

use one of these symbols: <, >, .

Definitions
A Null hypothesis - the status quo - initially assumed true
An Alternative Hypothesis - the researchers proposal what you hope to show
The goal of a statistical test is to evaluate the viability of the
null hypothesis in the light of the data that we have
collected.
Depending on the data, the null hypothesis will either be
rejected or it wont be rejected (it is never accepted).

Steps 1, 2, 3
Identifying H0 and H1

Example
Assume that 100 babies are born to 100 couples treated
with the XSORT method of gender selection that is
claimed to make girls more likely.
We observe 58 girls in 100 babies. Write the
hypotheses to test the claim the with the XSORT
method, the proportion of girls is greater than the 50%
that occurs without any treatment.

H 0 : p 0.5
H1 : p 0.5

Analogous Example: Intuition

Suppose the null hypothesis is that some candidate A will win

more than 50% of the vote and that the alternative hypothesis
is that candidate A will not win more than 50%.
Suppose we sampled 15 voters and recorded who voted for A.
What would you conclude if no one in the sample voted for

A (X = 0)?
If 50% of voters really did vote for A, it is highly improbable to

randomly draw a sample of 15 and find no voters for A

Thus, we would reject the null hypothesis.

Step 4
Select the Significance Level

Conducting Hypothesis Testing

Now that weve learned how to design null and alternative

hypothesis, lets point out the elements necessary to

actually test the hypothesis
A test statistic: a function of the data points in the sample
A rejection region: if the test statistic falls in the rejection

region of the sample statistic, we reject the null

hypothesis.
To define the critical region, we need to first know

significance level

Rejection region a preview

One tail rejection region

Significance Level
First, we need to identify significance level so that we

have a specific criterion for distinguishing between:

sample results that could easily occur by chance
from sample results that are unlikely to occur by chance.
Definition
The significance level is the probability of making the
mistake of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true.
Or, it is the probability that the test statistic will fall in the
critical region when the null hypothesis is true
This is the same introduced (0.05, 0.01, and 0.10)

Step 5
Identify the Test Statistic and Determine
its Sampling Distribution

Test Statistic
The test statistic is a value used in making a decision
about the null hypothesis
It is found by converting the sample statistic to a
score with the assumption that the null hypothesis is
true.

Convert sample proportion into z statistic

Convert sample mean into t statistic
Convert sample standard deviation s into stastistic

Test Statistic
First choose the correct test statistic, and identify the

sampling distribution of the statistic.

Rejection Region
The rejection region specifies the values of the

test statistic for which the null hypothesis is to be

rejected.
To define the rejection region, knowing the

significance level and which distribution to use is

important

Example
We are interested in the population parameter .
If is a specific vale of we may wish to test

: =
: >

against

From data, we can obtain test statistic :

Rejection Region: {> k} for some choice of k

Example
Lets assume that our null has =0 such that

: =0
When null hypothesis is true, our distribution may look like

the following

Example
Lets assume that our null has =0 such that

: =0
: >
Suppose we set rejection region like this: {> k}, k=1.64

Example
Then depending on our location of test statistic
We either reject or not reject the null hypothesis
If {> 1,64} : reject the null hypothesis
if { 1.64} cannot reject the null hypothesis

Step 6
Find the Value of the Test Statistic, Then
Find Either the P-Value or the Critical
Value(s)
1. First transform the relevant sample statistic to a
standardized score called the test statistic.
2. Then find the P-Value or the critical value(s).

Example
Lets again consider the claim that the XSORT gender
selection method increases the likelihood of having a girl.
Preliminary results from a test of the XSORT method of
gender selection involved 100 couples who gave birth to 58
girls and 42 boys.
Use the given claim and the preliminary results to calculate
the value of the test statistic.
Use z test statistic, so that a normal distribution is used to
approximate a binomial distribution.

Example - Continued

The claim that the XSORT method of gender selection

increases the likelihood of having a baby girl results in the
following null and alternative hypotheses:

H 0 : p 0.5
H1 : p 0.5
We work under the assumption that the null hypothesis is
true with p = 0.5.
The sample proportion of 58 girls in 10 births results in:

58
p
0.58
100

Example Convert to the Test Statistic

p p
0.58 0.5
z

1.60
pq
0.5 0.5
n
100
We know from previous chapters that a z score of 1.60 is
not unusual.
At first glance, 58 girls in 100 births does not seem to
support the claim that the XSORT method increases the
likelihood a having a girl (more than a 50% chance).

Hypothesis testing
Test statistics alone cannot give us enough information to

make a decision about the claim being tested.

We need either Rejection Region or Calculation of P-

value.

Types of Hypothesis Tests:

Two-tailed, Left-tailed, Right-tailed
The tails in a distribution are the
extreme regions bounded by critical
values.
Determinations of P-values and critical values are affected
by whether a critical region is in two tails, the left tail, or the
right tail.
Therefore, it becomes important to correctly ,characterize
a hypothesis test as two-tailed, left-tailed, or right-tailed.

Two-tailed Test
H 0 :
H1 :

is divided equally between the two

tails of the critical region

Left-tailed Test
H 0 :
H1 :

All in the left tail

Right-tailed Test
H 0 :
H1 :

All in the right tail

P-Value
The P-value (or probability value) is the probability
of getting a value of the test statistic that is at least
as extreme as the one representing the sample
data, assuming that the null hypothesis is true.
Critical region in
the left tail:

P-value = area to the left of the

test statistic

Critical region in
the right tail:

P-value = area to the right of the

test statistic

Critical region in
two tails:

P-value = twice the area in the

tail beyond the test statistic

Procedure for Finding P-Values

Epicker
Suppose we have a test statistic value of 1.96
1. What is the p-value if we are conducting a right tailed

hypothesis test?
a)
b)
c)
d)

0.05
0.025
0.1
0.975

Epicker
Suppose we have a test statistic value of 1.96
1. What is the p-value if we are conducting a left tailed

hypothesis test?
a)
b)
c)
d)

0.05
0.025
0.1
0.975

Epicker
Suppose we have a test statistic value of 1.96
1. What is the p-value if we are conducting a two tailed

hypothesis test?
a)
b)
c)
d)

0.05
0.025
0.1
0.975

P-Value
The null hypothesis is rejected if the P-value is
very small, such as 0.05 or less.

Example

The claim that the XSORT method of gender selection

increases the likelihood of having a baby girl results in the
following null and alternative hypotheses:

H 0 : p 0.5
H1 : p 0.5
The test statistic was :

p p
0.58 0.5
z

1.60
pq
0.5 0.5
n
100

Example

Calculate the p value for the test statistic with z=1.60

The test statistic of z = 1.60 has an area of 0.0548 to its
right, so a right-tailed test with test statistic z = 1.60 has a
P-value of 0.0548.
Or in other words: P(z>1.60)=0.0548

Critical Region/ Rejection region

The critical region (or rejection region) is the set
of all values of the test statistic that cause us to
reject the null hypothesis. For example, see the
red-shaded region in the previous figures.

Critical Value
A critical value is any value that separates the
critical region (where we reject the null
hypothesis) from the values of the test statistic
that do not lead to rejection of the null hypothesis.
The critical values depend on the nature of the
null hypothesis, the sampling distribution that
applies, and the significance level .

Example
For the XSORT birth hypothesis test, the critical value and
critical region for an = 0.05 test are shown below:

Critical Value
If the test is one tail, the critical value would be depending

on the type of test statistic with significance level

If the test is two tail, the critical value would be for the

corresponding test statistic with significance level

Step 7 : Make a Decision:

Reject H0 or Fail to Reject H0
The methodologies depend on if you are using the
P-Value method or the critical value method.

Decision Criterion
P-value Method:
Using the significance level :
If P-value , reject H0.
If P-value > , fail to reject H0.
e.g. If =0.05 and p value=0.0548, pvalue> , so fail to reject

Decision Criterion
Critical Value Method:
If the test statistic falls within the critical
region, reject H0.
If the test statistic does not fall within the
critical region, fail to reject H0.
e.g. If critical region is z=1.645 to infinity and test statistic z=1.60, then the
test statistic is not within the critical region, so we fail to reject the null

Example

For the XSORT baby gender test, the test had a test
statistic of z = 1.60 and a P-Value of 0.0548. We tested:

H 0 : p 0.5
H1 : p 0.5

Using the P-Value method, we would fail to reject the null at

the = 0.05 level.
Using the critical value method, we would fail to reject the
null because the test statistic of z = 1.60 does not fall in the
rejection region.
(You will come to the same decision using either method.)

Step 8 : Restate the Decision Using Simple

and Nontechnical Terms
State a final conclusion that addresses the original
claim with wording that can be understood by those
without knowledge of statistical procedures.

Example

For the XSORT baby gender test, there was not sufficient
evidence to support the claim that the XSORT method is
effective in increasing the probability that a baby girl will be
born.

Wording of Final Conclusion

Caution
Never conclude a hypothesis test with a statement of
reject the null hypothesis or fail to reject the null
hypothesis.
Always make sense of the conclusion with a statement
that uses simple nontechnical wording that addresses the
original claim.

Accept Versus Fail to Reject

Some texts use accept the null hypothesis.

We are not proving the null hypothesis.

Fail to reject says more correctly that the available

evidence is not strong enough to warrant rejection of the
null hypothesis.

Errors in hypothesis testing

Just like you could have a mistake in a jury

trial, you can make mistakes in hypothesis

testing.
For any fixed rejection region, we can make

two types of errors in making a decision about

the null hypothesis.

Type I Error

A Type I error is the mistake of rejecting the null

hypothesis when it is actually true.

The symbol is used to represent the probability of a

type I error.

E.g. Innocent man is pronounced guilty. This would mean

you rejected the null hypothesis when in fact, the null

hypothesis was true.

Type II Error

A Type II error is the mistake of failing to reject the null

hypothesis when it is actually false.

The symbol (beta) is used to represent the probability

of a type II error.

E.g. Guilty man is pronounced innocent. This would

mean you did not reject the null hypothesis when in fact,
the alternative was true. This is a Type II Error.

Errors

Type I error is usually considered more serious.

The symbol is used to represent the probability of

a type I error. is also called significance level

We get to set in advance, i.e. have direct control

over Type I errors.

The symbol (beta) is used to represent the

probability of a type II error. 1- is called power.

Type I and Type II Errors

Example
Assume that we are conducting a hypothesis test of the
claim that a method of gender selection increases the
likelihood of a baby girl, so that the probability of a baby
girls is p > 0.5.
Here are the null and alternative hypotheses:

H 0 : p 0.5
H1 : p 0.5
a) Identify a type I error.
b) Identify a type II error.

Example - Continued
A type I error is the mistake of rejecting a true null

hypothesis:
We conclude the probability of having a girl is greater than

50%, when in reality, it is not. In other words, we will

falsely conclude that XSORT is effective. Our data misled
us.

Example - Continued
A type II error is the mistake of failing to reject the null

hypothesis when it is false:

There is no evidence to conclude the probability of having

a girl is greater than 50% (our data misled us), but in

reality, the probability is greater than 50%.
In other words XSORT is actually effective, but our data

concluded that it has no effect.

Controlling Type I and

Type II Errors

For any fixed , an increase in the sample size n will

cause a decrease in

For any fixed sample size n, a decrease in will cause

an increase in . Conversely, an increase in will
cause a decrease in .

To decrease both and , increase the sample size.

Part2: Beyond theBasics of HypothesisTesting:

The Power of aTest

Definition
The power of a hypothesis test is the probability 1
of rejecting a false null hypothesis.
The value of the power is computed by using a particular
significance level and a particular value of the population
parameter that is an alternative to the value assumed true
in the null hypothesis.

Power

1-

Power and the

Design of Experiments
Just as 0.05 is a common choice for a significance level, a
power of at least 0.80 is a common requirement for
determining that a hypothesis test is effective. (Some
statisticians argue that the power should be higher, such as
0.85 or 0.90.)
When designing an experiment, we might consider how much
of a difference between the claimed value of a parameter and
its true value is an important amount of difference.
When designing an experiment, a goal of having a power
value of at least 0.80 can often be used to determine the
minimum required sample size.

Chapter 7
Hypothesis Testing
7-1 Review and Preview
7-2 Basics of Hypothesis Testing
7-3 Testing a Claim about a Proportion
7-4 Testing a Claim About a Mean
7-5 Testing a Claim About a Standard Deviation or
Variance

Key Concept
This section presents complete procedures for
testing a hypothesis (or claim) made about a
population proportion.
This section uses the components introduced in
the previous section for the P-value method, the
traditional method or the use of confidence
intervals.

Key Concept
Two common methods for testing a claim about a
population proportion are (1) to use a normal
distribution as an approximation to the binomial
distribution, and (2) to use an exact method
based on the binomial probability distribution.
Part 1 of this section uses the approximate
method with the normal distribution, and Part 2 of
this section briefly describes the exact method.

Part 1:
Basic Methods of Testing Claims
about a Population Proportion p

Notation
n = sample size or number of trials

p = population proportion
q =1p

Requirements for Testing Claims About

a Population Proportion p
1) The sample observations are a simple random sample.
2) The conditions for a binomial distribution are satisfied.
3) The conditions np 5 and nq 5 are both satisfied, so

the binomial distribution of sample proportions can be

approximated by a normal distribution with = np and
.

Note:
npq
p is the assumed proportion not the sample
proportion.

Test Statistic for Testing

a Claim About a Proportion

p p
z
pq
n
P-values:

Use the standard normal distribution (Table A-2)

and refer to Figure 8-1.

Critical Values:

Use the standard normal distribution (Table A-2).

Methods to use
P-value method
Critical Value method
Confidence interval method - usually used for estimation

Caution
When testing claims about a population proportion, the
traditional method and the P-value method are equivalent
and will yield the same result since they use the same
standard deviation based on the claimed proportion p.
However, the confidence interval uses anpestimated
standard deviation based upon the sample proportion

Consequently, it is possible that the traditional and P-value

methods may yield a different conclusion than the
confidence interval method.
A good strategy is to use a confidence interval to estimate
a population proportion, but use the P-value or traditional
method for testing a claim about the proportion.

Example
Based on information from the National Cyber Security
Alliance, 93% of computer owners believe they have
antivirus programs installed on their computers.
In a random sample of 400 scanned computers, it is found
that 380 of them (or 95%) actually have antivirus software
programs.
Use the sample data from the scanned computers to test
the claim that 93% of computers have antivirus software.

Example - Continued
Requirement check:
1.The 400 computers are randomly selected.
2.There is a fixed number of independent trials with two
categories (computer has an antivirus program or does
not).
3.The requirements np 5 and nq 5 are both satisfied
with n = 400

np 400 0.93 372

nq 400 0.07 28

Example - Continued
P-Value Method:
1.The original claim that 93% of computers have antivirus
software can be expressed as p = 0.93.
2.The opposite of the original claim is p 0.93.
3.The hypotheses are written as:

H 0 : p 0.93
H1 : p 0.93

Example - Continued
P-Value Method:
4. For the significance level, we select = 0.05.
5. Because we are testing a claim about a population
proportion, the sample statistic relevant to this test is:

p , approximated by a normal distribution

6. The test statistic is calculated as:

p p
z

pq
n

380
0.93
400
1.57
0.93 0.07
400

Example - Continued
P-Value Method:
6. Because the hypothesis test is two-tailed with a test statistic of
z = 1.57, the P-value is twice the area to the right of z = 1.57.
The P-value is twice 0.0582, or 0.1164.

Example - Continued
P-Value Method:
7. Because the P-value of 0.1164 is greater than the significance level
of = 0.05, we fail to reject the null hypothesis.
8.We fail to reject the claim that 93% computers have antivirus
software. We conclude that there is not sufficient sample evidence to
warrant rejection of the claim that 93% of computers have antivirus
programs.

Example - Continued
Critical Value Method: Steps 1 5 are the same as for
the P-value method.
6.The test statistic is computed to be z = 1.57. We now find the
critical values, with the critical region having an area of = 0.05, split
equally in both tails.

Example - Continued
Critical Value Method:
7.Because the test statistic does not fall in the critical region, we fail
to reject the null hypothesis.
8.We fail to reject the claim that 93% computers have antivirus
software. We conclude that there is not sufficient sample evidence to
warrant rejection of the claim that 93% of computers have antivirus
programs.

Example - Continued
Confidence Interval Method:
The claim of p = 0.93 can be tested at the = 0.05 level
of significance with a 95% confidence interval.
Using the methods of Section 7-2, we get:
0.929 < p < 0.971
This interval contains p = 0.93, so we do not have
sufficient evidence to warrant the rejection of the claim
that 93% of computers have antivirus programs.

Part 2
Exact Method for Testing Claims
about a Proportion p

Testing Claims
Using the Exact Method

We can get exact results by using the binomial probability

distribution.
Binomial probabilities are a nuisance to calculate manually,
but technology makes this approach quite simple.
Also, this exact approach does not require that np 5 and
nq 5 so we have a method that applies when that
requirement is not satisfied.
To test hypotheses using the exact binomial distribution,
use the binomial probability distribution with the P-value
method, use the value of p assumed in the null hypothesis,
and find P-values as follows:

Testing Claims Using

the Exact Method

Left-tailed test:
The P-value is the probability of getting x or fewer
successes among n trials.

Right-tailed test:
The P-value is the probability of getting x or more
successes among n trials.

Testing Claims Using

the Exact Method

Two-tailed test:

If p p , the P-value is twice the probability of

getting x or more successes

If p p , the P-value is twice the probability of

getting x or fewer successes

Example
In testing a method of gender selection, 10 randomly
selected couples are treated with the method, and 9 of the
babies are girls.
Use a 0.05 significance level to test the claim that with
this method, the probability of a baby being a girl is
greater than 0.75.

Example - Continued
We will test

H 0 : p 0.75
H1 : p 0.75

Use manual calculation or technology to find probabilities

in a binomial distribution with p = 0.75.
Because it is a right-tailed test, the P-value is the
probability of 9 or more successes among 10 trials,
assuming p = 0.75.

Example - Continued
The probability of 9 or more successes is 0.2440252,
which is the P-value of the hypothesis test.
The P-value is high (greater than 0.05), so we fail to reject
the null hypothesis.
There is not sufficient evidence to support the claim that
with the gender selection method, the probability of a girl
is greater than 0.75.

Chapter 7
Hypothesis Testing
7-1 Review and Preview
7-2 Basics of Hypothesis Testing
7-3 Testing a Claim about a Proportion
7-4 Testing a Claim About a Mean
7-5 Testing a Claim About a Standard Deviation or
Variance

Key Concept
This section presents methods for testing a claim about a
population mean.
Part 1 deals with the very realistic and commonly used
case in which the population standard deviation is not
known.
Part 2 discusses the procedure when is known, which is
very rare.

Part 1
When is not known, we use a t test that incorporates
the Student t distribution.

n = sample size

x = sample mean
x = population mean

Requirements
1. The sample is a simple random sample.
2. Either or both of these conditions is satisfied:

The population is normally distributed or n > 30.

Test Statistic

x x
t
s
n
For running the test, both for pvalue method and critical

value method, use t distribution with n-1 degrees of

freedom

Example
Listed below are the measured radiation emissions (in W/kg)
corresponding to a sample of cell phones.
Use a 0.05 level of significance to test the claim that cell
phones have a mean radiation level that is less than 1.00
W/kg.
0.38

0.55

1.54

1.55

0.50

0.60

0.92

0.96

1.00

0.86

1.46

The summary statistics are: x 0.938 and s 0.423

.

Example - Continued
Requirement Check:
We assume the sample is a simple random sample.
The sample size is n = 11, which is not greater than 30, so we

must check a normal quantile plot for normality.

Example - Continued
The points are reasonably close to a straight line and there is
no other pattern, so we conclude the data appear to be from a
normally distributed population.

Example - Continued
Step 1: The claim that cell phones have a mean radiation
level less than 1.00 W/kg is expressed as < 1.00 W/kg.
Step 2: The alternative to the original claim is 1.00 W/kg.
Step 3: The hypotheses are written as:

H 0 : 1.00 W/kg
H1 : 1.00 W/kg

Example - Continued
Step 4: The stated level of significance is = 0.05.
Step 5: Because the claim is about a population mean , the
statistic most relevant to this test is the sample mean: .

Example - Continued
Step 6: Calculate the test statistic and then find the P-value or the critical
value from Table A-3:

x x 0.938 1.00
t

0.486
s
0.423
n
11

Example - Continued
Step 7: Critical Value Method: Because the test statistic of
t = 0.486 does not fall in the critical region bounded by the
critical value of t = 1.812, fail to reject the null hypothesis.

Example - Continued
Step 7: P-value method: Technology, such as a TI-83/84 Plus
calculator can output the P-value of 0.3191. Since the P-value
exceeds = 0.05, we fail to reject the null hypothesis.

Example
Step 8: Because we fail to reject the null hypothesis, we
conclude that there is not sufficient evidence to support the
claim that cell phones have a mean radiation level that is less
than 1.00 W/kg.

Finding P-Values
Assuming that neither software nor a TI-83 Plus calculator is
available, use Table A-3 to find a range of values for the Pvalue corresponding to the given results.
a) In a left-tailed hypothesis test, the sample size is n = 12,
and the test statistic is t = 2.007.
b) In a right-tailed hypothesis test, the sample size is n = 12,
and the test statistic is t = 1.222.
c) In a two-tailed hypothesis test, the sample size is n = 12,
and the test statistic is t = 3.456.

Example Confidence
Interval Method
We can use a confidence interval for testing a claim about
.
For a two-tailed test with a 0.05 significance level, we
construct a 95% confidence interval.
For a one-tailed test with a 0.05 significance level, we
construct a 90% confidence interval.

Example Confidence
Interval Method

Using the cell phone example, construct a confidence interval that

can be used to test the claim that < 1.00 W/kg, assuming =
0.05
Note that a left-tailed hypothesis test with = 0.05 corresponds to
a 90% confidence interval. we get:
0.707 W/kg < < 1.169 W/kg
Because the value of = 1.00 W/kg is contained in the interval,
we cannot reject the null hypothesis that = 1.00 W/kg .
Based on the sample of 11 values, we do not have sufficient
evidence to support the claim that the mean radiation level is less
than 1.00 W/kg.

Part 2
When is known, we use test that involves the standard
normal distribution.
In reality, it is very rare to test a claim about an unknown
population mean while the population standard deviation is
somehow known.

Test Statistic for Testing a Claim About a Mean (with

Known)

The test statistic is:

x x
z

For running the test, both for pvalue method and critical
value method, use the standard normal distribution

Example
If we repeat the cell phone radiation example, with the
assumption that = 0.480 W/kg, the test statistic is:

x x 0.938 1.00
z

0.43

0.480
n
11

Epicker
Find the corresponding p value for the previous example

where

x x 0.938 1.00
z

0.43

0.480
n
11

and the test is a left tailed test.

a) 0.3336
b) 0.05
c) 0.6664
so the P-value=P(z<-0.43)= 0.3336 (found in Table A-2).
Since the P-value is large, we fail to reject the null and reach
the same conclusion as before.

Chapter 7
Hypothesis Testing
7-1 Review and Preview
7-2 Basics of Hypothesis Testing
7-3 Testing a Claim about a Proportion
7-4 Testing a Claim About a Mean
7-5 Testing a Claim About a Standard Deviation or
Variance

Key Concept
This section introduces methods for testing a claim
made about a population standard deviation or
population variance 2.
The methods of this section use the chi-square
distribution.

Requirements for Testing

Claims About or 2
n
s
s2

= sample size
= sample standard deviation
= sample variance
= claimed value of the population standard
deviation

2 = claimed value of the population variance

Requirements
1. The sample is a simple random sample.
2. The population has a normal distribution.
(This is a much stricter requirement than the
requirement of a normal distribution when testing claims
about means.)

Chi-Square Distribution
Test Statistic

(n 1) s

2

P-Values and Critical Values for

Chi-Square Distribution
P-values: Use technology or Table A-4.
Critical Values: Use Table A-4.
In either case, the degrees of freedom = n 1.

Caution
The 2 test of this section is not robust against a
departure from normality, meaning that the test does not
work well if the population has a distribution that is far
from normal.
The condition of a normally distributed population is
therefore a much stricter requirement in this section than
it for t statistic.

Example
Listed below are the heights (inches) for a simple random
sample of ten supermodels.
Consider the claim that supermodels have heights that
have much less variation than the heights of women in
the general population.
We will use a 0.01 significance level to test the claim that
supermodels have heights with a standard deviation that
is less than 2.6 inches.
70

71

69.25

68.5

Summary Statistics:

69

70

71

70

70

s 2 0.8942816 and s 0.7997395

69.5

Example - Continued
Requirement Check:
1. The sample is a simple random sample.
2. We check for normality, which seems reasonable
based on the normal quantile plot.

Example - Continued
Step 1: The claim that the standard deviation is less
than 2.6 inches is expressed as < 2.6 inches.
Step 2: If the original claim is false, then 2.6 inches.
Step 3: The hypotheses are:

H 0 : 2.6 inches
H1 : 2.6 inches

Example - Continued
Step 4: The significance level is = 0.01.
Step 5: Because the claim is made about , we use the
chi-square distribution.

Example - Continued
Step 6: The test statistic is calculated as follows:

10 1 0.7997395

(n 1) s
x

0.852
2
2

2.6
2

with 9 degrees of freedom.

Example - Continued
Step 6: The critical value of 2 = 2.088 is found from
Table A-4, and it corresponds to 9 degrees of freedom
and an area to the right of 0.99.

Example - Continued
Step 7: Because the test statistic is in the critical region,
we reject the null hypothesis.
There is sufficient evidence to support the claim that
supermodels have heights with a standard deviation that
is less than 2.6 inches.
Heights of supermodels have much less variation than
heights of women in the general population.

Example - Continued
P-Value Method:
P-values are generally found using technology, but Table
A-4 can be used if technology is not available.
Using a TI-83/84 Plus, the P-value is 0.0002897.

Example - Continued
P-Value Method:
Since the P-value = 0.0002897, we can reject the null
hypothesis (it is under the 0.01 significance level).
We reach the same exact conclusion as before regarding
the variation in the heights of supermodels as compared
to the heights of women from the general population.

Example - Continued
Confidence Interval Method:
Since the hypothesis test is left-tailed using a 0.01 level
of significance, we can run the test by constructing an
interval with 98% confidence.

Example - Continued
Based on this interval, we can support the claim that
< 2.6 inches, reaching the same conclusion as
using the P-value method and the critical value
method.