Sources of Knowledge

By
Imran Niazi
M.Phil Education
GCET Mianwali

Introduction

Doubtless to say that the secret of our

cultural development has been
research. Pushing back the areas of
ignorance by discovering new truth,
which in turn, lead to better ways of
doing things and better products.
There is no alternative to truth and
therefore ,to research.
To research is to get nearer to truth

Introduction

Human knowledge works at two levels.

At the primary level, it functions as the basis
of useful human activities, as when a teacher
solves the mathematical problems for the
students or as when a doctor uses his
knowledge to cure diseases.
At secondary level, knowledge is employed to
obtain increments in the existing knowledge.
The activity that produce this knowledge is
known as Research.

Brain storming

How do you try to understand ,

discuss , explain and control the
things and events around you?

Sources of knowledge
Common sense: Every one knows that it is so
Intuition: I just know it
Beliefs: it is based on personal conviction
Tenacity: verification over the years
Tradition: practice through generations
Personal Experience: personal testing and experience
Authority: the word of experts
Divine and supernatural powers: the revelations of God
and of other powers
Reason and logic: the intellect can capture truth and
knowledge directly
Scientific methods: knowledge is derived through
empirical procedures

Sources of knowledge

The quest for knowledge stems from human

desire to settle the irritation of doubt by
moving into a state of belief.
There are different sources of knowledge.
Some of them are mentioned here
Sense perception/Personal experience
Tradition & custom
Experts and authorities
Logic
(i) Inductive (ii) Deductive
The scientific method
Obj.
1.2

The earliest understanding of the

environment probably came through sense.
The sense perception may be defined as a
connected series of concepts that help people
to make sense about environment to function
more effectively in it.
Limitations
How one is affected by an event depends
on who one is.
One frequently needs to know something
that cannot by learned through experience.

Custom & Tradition

Doing things as they have always been done

The dependence on tradition or custom is also
necessary. We often refer to custom and
tradition in the event of solving a problem.
It largely determines our mode of facing the
situation and mode of making adjustments.
Generally we obey them and avoid violating
them.
Limitations

Traditions are often based on an idealized past

Traditions can be distant from current realities and the
complexities associated with them
Obj. 1.2

Expert and Authority

Relying on the expertise or authority of others

because of their intellect, training, expertness,
experience or aptitude.
They are better informed than other people. So
contact and discussion with experts are also
helpful to get knowledge.
The participation in conferences, seminars and
workshops and listening to learned experts are
helpful in getting knowledge.
Limitations

Experts can disagree among themselves

Experts can be wrong

Flies have five legs

Some of the problems associated with

experience and authority are illustrated by a
story told about Aristotle.
According to story, one day Aristotle caught a
fly and carefully counted and recounted the
legs. He then announced that flies have five
legs. No one questioned the word of Aristotle.
For years his finding was uncritically accepted.
Of course, that Aristotle caught fly just
happened to be missed a leg!

Rationality

Rationalism is a system by which knowledge

is gained by reason and not by experiencing
the world. It is also called metaphysics.
it deals with the causes and principles of
existing things, not with experience.
Rationalism regards human reason as the
only reliable guide to knowledge. They don't
believe that it is necessary to verify
knowledge either by faith or experience.
There are two types of reasoning i.e.
Deductive reasoning and Inductive Reasoning

Deductive Reasoning

The first systematic approach to reasoning ,

attributed to Aristotle, was the deductive
reasoning.

Reasoning from the general to the

specific.
This method moved from general assumption to
the specific application. This approach made an
important contribution to the development of
modern problem solving methods.

Deductive Reasoning

A type of logic in which one goes from a

general statement to a specific
instance.
The classic example is
All men are mortal. (major premise)
Socrates is a man. (minor premise)
Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (conclusion)

The above is an example of a syllogism.

Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning involves

essentially process, arriving at specific
conclusion based on generalizations.
Example: All research textbook
contain a chapter on sampling.
(General)
This book is a research textbook.
Therefore, this book contain a
chapter
on sampling.(Specific)

Limitation of Deductive
Method
It was not fruitful in arriving at
new truth

You must begin with true

premises in order to arrive at
true conclusions

Deductive reasoning only

organizes what is already known

Inductive Reasoning
Centuries later, Francis Bacon advocated
direct observation of phenomena, arriving
at conclusions or generalization through the
evidence of many individual observations.
This was called inductive reasoning

Reasoning from the specific to

the general
Obj. 1.2

Inductive Reasoning

It involves going from a series of

specific cases to a general
statement.

The conclusion in an inductive

argument is never guaranteed.

Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning involves formulation

of generalizations based on observation
of a limited number of specific events.
Example: Every research textbook
examined contain a chapter on sampling.
(Specific)
Therefore, all research textbook contain a
chapter on sampling (General)

Limitations of Inductive
method

In order to be certain of a conclusion one

must observe all examples
All examples can be observed only in
very limited situations where there are
few members of the group

Inductive & deductive

reasoning

Inductive Reasoning
A sample of fifty
motorists revealed that
one in four drivers were
either uninsured, drunk,
or both.
Thus, if you get
involved in an accident
on the freeway there is
a 25% chance the other
motorist will be drunk
or uninsured or both.

Deductive Reasoning
The Law of the Sea
treaty states that any
ship beyond a 12 mile
limit is in international
waters. So, it cannot be
legally stopped or
boarded. Therefore, when
the U.S. Coast Guard
intercepts boats coming
from Cuba or Haiti more
than 12 miles from the
U.S. coast, it is violating
the Law of the Sea.

The Scientific Method

The major premise of the older

Deductive was gradually replaced by
an assumption, or hypothesis,
that was subsequently tested by the
collection and logical analysis of data.
This deductive-inductive method is
now recognized as an example of a
scientific approach.

The Scientific Method

The goal of the scientific method is to

explain, predict, and/or control
phenomena
This involves the acquisition of
knowledge and the development and
testing of theory
The use of the scientific method is more
efficient and reliable than any other
source of knowledge

The Scientific Method

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

John Dewey(1938) suggested a pattern that is

helpful in identifying the elements of a
deductive-inductive process
Identification and definition of the problem
Formulation of hypothesis- an intelligent guess
Collection, organization and analysis of data
Formulation of conclusions
Verification, rejection, or modification of the
hypothesis

Scientific Method

Identify a Problem
Form Hypothesis
Design Experiment

The most
creative
part

Conduct Experiment
Hypothesis Testing
Reject Hypothesis

Accept Hypothesis

Disseminate
Results
Jeff Offutt, 2007

24

The Scientific Method

Limitations of the scientific method

Inability to answer value-based

questions involving should
Inability to capture the full richness
and complexities of the participants
Limitations of our measurement
instruments
Ethical and legal responsibilities

Known is a drop, Unknown

is an ocean

Research its purpose &

Characteristics
By
Imran Niazi
M.Phil Education
GCET Mianwali

Research

According to J.W. Best (1992)

Research is an intellectual activity

which brings to light new
knowledge or correct previous error
and misconceptions and add in an
orderly way to the existing corpus
of knowledge

Concept of Research

The term research and scientific method

are often used synonymously and
research is considered to be more formal
systematic intensive process of carrying
on the scientific method of analysis.
Moreover, research is a point of view, an
attitude of inquiry or a frame of mind . It
asks questions which have not been
asked , it seeks to answer them by
following a fairly definite procedure.

Research
According to L. R. Gay
Research is the formal, systematic
application of the scientific method
to the study of problem;
Educational research is the formal,
systematic application of the
scientific method to the study of
educational problem

MOVIE

Research may also be explained with the

five characterizations spelling out of word
MOVIE:

M. Mathematical precision and accuracy

O. Objectivity
V. Verification
I. Impartiality
E. Expertness

Propose of Research is
Review or synthesize existing knowledge
to

Investigate existing situations or problems

Provide solutions to problems
Explore and analyze more general issues
Construct or create new procedures or systems
Explain new phenomenon
Generate new knowledge
or a combination of any of the above!
(Collis & Hussey, 2003)

Characteristic of Research

1)
2)

3)

4)

The characteristics of research are described as

under:
Research directs toward the solution of a problem.
Research emphasizes the development of
generalization, principles or theories that will be
helpful in predicting future occurrences.
Research is based upon observable experience or
empirical evidence.
Research demands accurate observation and
description.

Characteristic of Research
5) Research involve gathering new data from
primary or first _hand sources or using existing
data for a new purpose.
6) Research involves data analysis.
7) Research require expertise.
8) Research involves the quest for answers to
unsolved problems.
9) Research is patient and unhurried activity.
10) Research is objective and logical & carefully
recorded and reported.

Educational Research

The application of the scientific

method to study educational
problems
The goal is to explain, predict,
and/or control educational
phenomena

Educational Research

Steps for conducting educational research

Selection of a problem
Use of specific research procedures to design
and collect data
Analysis of data
Statement of conclusions based on the results
of the data analyses

Parallels the steps in the scientific method

Obj. 1.7

Educational Research

Difficulties conducting educational

research

Involves human beings and the complexities

associated with them
Difficulties generalizing from specific studies
Problems when imposing sufficient controls to
conduct research in educational settings
Complications when observing in educational
settings
Indirect measurement of the variables being
studied
Obj. 1.8

Classifying Research

Two helpful ways to view research

Purpose

The degree of direct applicability of

research to educational practices and
settings

Method

The overall strategies followed to collect

and analyze data

Obj. 3.1, 3.2 & 3.5

The Purposes of Research

Five categories

Basic
Applied
Evaluation
Research and development (R & D)
Action

Obj. 3.3

The Purposes of Research

Basic research

Collection and analysis of data to

develop or enhance theory
Examples related to learning theory

Piaget
Constructivism
Mastery learning
Gardners multiple intelligences
Obj. 3.4

The Purposes of Research

Applied research

Collection and analysis of data to examine the

usefulness of theory in solving practical
educational problems
Examples

Developing a seventh grade social studies curriculum

around a problem-solving approach to learning
Examining the effectiveness of a computer-based
algebra program developed around a mastery
learning approach
Accommodating varied learning styles when teaching
lessons in modern literature
Obj.
3.4

The Purposes of Research

The interaction of basic and

applied research

Basic research provides the theory

that produces the concepts for
solving educational problems
Applied research provides the data to
help support, guide, and revise the
development theory
Obj. 3.4

The Purposes of Research

Evaluation research

The collection and analysis of data to

make decisions related to the merit or
worth of a specific program

Merit relates to a program accomplishing

what it was supposed to accomplish
Worth relates to the value attached to a
program by those using it
Obj. 3.4

The Purposes of Research

Evaluation research

Types of evaluation

Formative evaluation is designed to

inform and improve a program while it is
being developed or implemented
Summative evaluation is designed to
make decisions regarding the overall
quality of the program being evaluated
Obj. 3.4

The Purposes of Research

Evaluation research

Examples

The computerized algebra program being

used in Williams Middle School has been
installed properly, is being used properly,
and student achievement is increasing as
a result of its use
The computerized algebra program being
used in Williams Middle School is
perceived to be an efficient and effective
expenditure of district funds
Obj. 3.4

The Purposes of Research

Research and development

The development of effective products for

use in schools
Examples

The development of the software to create a

computerized algebra program that
incorporates an individualized mastery
learning approach to teaching basic algebraic
concepts
The development of a Smart Board to enhance
a teachers use of technology in the classroom
Obj. 3.4

The Purposes of Research

Action research

The collection and analysis of data to provide

a solution to the practical, valued problems of
educators within their own school or
organization
Examples

How can our college move to a performance based

model for undergraduate teacher preparation
programs?
How can disciplinary policies be enforced
consistently in our school?
Obj.
3.4

Research Methods

Two general categories of methods

currently being used in educational
research

Quantitative
Qualitative

Obj. 3.5

Quantitative Methods

General purpose

Collect and analyze data to explain, predict, or

control phenomena of interest

Describe current conditions

Investigate relationships
Study causes and effects

Assumptions of the researcher

We live in a stable, uniform, and coherent world

We can measure, understand, and generalize
about our world
Generally regarded as a positivistic perspective
Obj. 3.6 & 5.1

Quantitative Methods

Characteristics

Numerical data
Use of formally stated hypotheses and procedures
Use of controls to minimize the effects of factors
that could interfere with the outcome of the
research
Large numbers of participating subjects
An objective, detached researcher
Use of pencil and paper tests, questionnaires, etc.

Obj. 3.6 &

5.1

Quantitative Methods

Five basic designs

Descriptive
Correlational
Causal-comparative
Experimental
Single subject
Obj. 3.7

Quantitative Designs

Descriptive

Purpose to describe the current status of a

variable of interest to the researcher
Examples

How many students drop out of school in Louisiana?

What are the attitudes of parents, students, and
teachers concerning an extended school year?
What kinds of activities typically occur in sixthgrade art classes, and how frequently does each
occur?
To what extent are elementary teachers using math
manipulatives?
Obj. 3.7 &
4.1

Quantitative Designs

Correlational

Purpose to ascertain the extent to which two

or more variables are statistically related
Examples

What is the relationship between ACT scores and freshman

grades?
Is a teachers sense of efficacy related to his/her
effectiveness?
Do significant relationships exist between the types of
activities used in math classrooms and student
achievement?

This design does NOT imply causation

Obj. 3.7 &
4.1

Quantitative Designs

Causal-comparative

Purpose to explore relationships among variables

that cannot be actively manipulated or controlled
by the researcher
Examples

What is the effect of part-time employment on the achievement

of high school students?
What characteristics differentiate students who drop out from
those who do not?
What is the effect of attending a magnet school on student
attitude?

An important characteristic is that the independent

variable has already been manipulated
Obj. 3.7 & 4.1

Quantitative Designs

Experimental

Purpose to establish cause and effect

relationships between variables
Examples

What is the effect of teaching with (1) a co-operative

groups strategy or (2) a traditional lecture approach on
students achievement?
What is the effect of teaching with manipulatives vs. a
traditional algorithm approach on students test
scores?

The important characteristics are that the

researcher manipulates the independent
variable and controls extraneous variables
Obj. 3.7 & 4.1

Quantitative Designs

Single subject

Purpose to investigate cause and effect

relationships with samples of one (1)
Examples

What is the effect of a behavior modification program

on Johns conduct in class?
What is the effect of a behavioral training program on
Joans ability to complete her performance tasks?

The important characteristic is the use of

specific interventions to cause behavioral
changes in low incidence populations (e.g.,
special education)
Obj. 3.7 &
4.1

Qualitative Methods

General purpose

To probe deeply into the research setting to obtain in-depth

understandings about the way things are, why they are like
that, and how participants perceive them

The need to create a sustained, in-depth, in context study that

allows the researcher to uncover subtle, less overt personal
understandings

Assumptions of the researcher

All meaning is situated in a particular perspective or

context
Different people and groups often have different
perspectives and contexts, so there are many different
meanings in the world
Generally regarded as a post-positivistic perspective
Obj. 3.8 &
5.1

Qualitative Methods

Characteristics

There are no hypotheses guiding the researcher, rather a

general issue known as the foreshadowed problem
suggests the general issues of concern
Problems and methods tend to evolve over the course of
the study as understanding of the research context and
participants deepens
Phenomena are examined as they exist in a natural
context, and they are viewed from the participants
perspectives
There are few participants involved in the study
Data analysis is interpretative in nature
The researcher interacts extensively with the participants
Obj. 3.8 & 5.1

Qualitative Methods

Two basic designs

Narrative
Ethnography

Obj. 3.9

Qualitative Designs

Narrative

Purpose focus on studying a single person

and gathering data through the collection of
stories that are used to construct a narrative
about the individuals experience and the
meanings he/she attributes to them
Examples

What are the experiences of a veteran teacher who

has been moved into an administrative position in
her school?
What does inclusion mean to a special needs child
who is placed in a regular education classroom?
Obj. 3.9 & 4.2

Qualitative Designs

Ethnography

Purpose to obtain an understanding of the

shared beliefs and practices of a particular
group or culture
Examples

What is the nature of the problems teachers

encounter when they begin using a constructivist
approach to instruction after having taught using
a very traditional approach for ten years?
Why does a sense of failure permeate everything
about this particular high school?
Obj. 3.9 & 4.2

Quantitative and
Qualitative Methods

Complementary nature of quantitative

and qualitative approaches

Different purposes of research

Explanatory
Exploratory

Consideration of the strengths and

weaknesses of different approaches for
specific purposes

Quantitative versus Qualitative Researc

h
Obj. 3.11 & 5.1

Quantitative and
Qualitative Methods

The ultimate goal when choosing a

design is to produce a credible answer
to the research question

The research question drives the choice of a

research design
The characteristics of specific designs
suggest they will produce more credible
answers to specific types of research
questions than other designs

Specific purposes
Specific procedures and analyses for each design

Using Your Knowledge

Examine the following studies and

categorize them as quantitative or
qualitative
If quantitative, categorize them as
descriptive, correlational, causalcomparative, experimental, or single
subject
If qualitative, categorize them as
narrative or ethnography

Using Your Knowledge

Thinking about Brown and Walbergs

article as well as Wolfes article

Why would you consider the first a

quantitative study and the second a
qualitative study?
What would you suggest is the purpose
of each article using the five categories
described by the authors of the text?

Custom vs tradition

They basically mean the same but there might

be some differences in the contexts where they
are typically used.
"custom" is more like a habit, something you
don't really think about you just do it.
"Tradition", on the other hand, is something with
a deeper meaning, possibly religious, cultural or
family-specific that guides the person's/groups
way of behaviour or performance in certain
situations.