Chapter - 2

THE TAXONOMY OF BUGS

The Consequences of
BUGS

The importance of Bugs depends on frequency,

correction cost, installation cost and consequences.
Frequency: How often does that kind of bug occur?
Pay more attention to the more frequent bug types.
Correction Cost: What does it cost to correct the
bug after its been found? That cost is the sum of
two factors.(1) the cost of discovery and (2) the
cost of correction. These costs go up dramatically
the later in the development cycle the bug is
discovered. Correction cost also depends on
system size.

The Consequences of
BUGS-continued.,

Installation Cost: Installation cost depends on the

number of installations: small for a single user
program but more for distributed systems. Fixing
one bug and distributing the fix could exceed the
entire systems development cost.
Consequences: what are the consequences of the
bug? This can be measured by the size of the
awards made by juries to the victims of the bug.
A reasonable metric for bug importance is:
Importance($)=frequence*(correction_
Cost+installation_cost+consequential_cost)

How Bugs Affect UsConsequences

Bug consequences range from mild to

catastrophic. These are measured in
terms of human rather than machine.
Some consequences on a scale of one to
ten.
Mild: The symptoms of the bug offend us
aesthetically; a misspelled output or a
misaligned printout.
Moderate: outputs are misleading or
redundant. The bug impacts the systems
performance.

How Bugs Affect UsConsequences-continued.,

Annoying: The systems behavior,

because of the bug is dehumanizing.
Names are truncated or arbitrarily
modified.
Disturbing: it refuses to handle legitimate
transactions. The ATM wont give you
money. My credit card is declared invalid.
Serious: it loses track of transactions. Not
just the transaction it self but the fact that
the transaction occurred. Accountability is
lost.

How Bugs Affect UsConsequences-continued.,

Very serious: The bug causes the system to do

the wrong transactions. Instead of losing your
paycheck, the system credits it to another
account or converts deposits into withdrawals.
Extreme: the problems arent limited to a few
users or to a few transaction types. They are
frequent and arbitrary instead of sporadic or
for unusual cases.
Intolerable: Long term un recoverable
corruption of the data base occurs and the
corruption is not easily discovered. Serious
consideration is given to shutting the system
down.

How Bugs Affect UsConsequences-continued.,

Catastrophic: the decision to shutdown

is taken out of our hands because the
system fails.
Infectious: what can be worse than a
failed system? One that corrupts other
systems even though it does not fall in
itself; that erodes the social physical
environment; that melts nuclear
reactors and starts war.

Flexible Severity Rather

than Absolutes

Quality can be measured as a combination of factors, of

which the number of bugs and their severity is only one
component.
Many organizations have designed and use satisfactory,
quantitative, quality metrics.
Because bugs and their symptoms play a significant role
in such metrics, as testing progresses you see the quality
rise to a reasonable value which is deemed to be safe to
ship the product.
The factors are:

Correction Cost
Context and Application Dependency
Creating Culture Dependency
User Culture Dependency
The Software Development Phase

A Taxonomy for Bugs

There is no universally correct way to categorize

bugs.
The taxonomy is not rigid.
A given bug can be put into one or another
category depending on its history and the
programmers state of mind.
The major categories are:

Requirements, features and functionality Bugs

Structural Bugs
Data Bugs
Coding Bugs
Interface, integration and system Bugs
Test and Test Design Bugs

Requirements, Features
and Functionality Bugs

Various categories in
Requirements, Features and
Functionality:

Requirements and Specifications

Feature Bugs
Feature Interaction Bugs

Requirements and
Specifications Bugs

Requirement and Specification: Requirements and

the specifications developed from them can be
incomplete, ambiguous, or self-contradictory. They can
be misunderstood or impossible to understand.
The specifications that dont have flaws in them may
change while the design in progress. The features are
added, modified and deleted.
Requirements, especially as expressed in a specification
are a major source of expensive bugs.
The range is from a few percentage to more than 50%,
depending upon the application and the environment.
What hurts most about these bugs is that theyre the
earliest to invade the system and the last to leave .

Feature Bugs

Feature Bugs: Specification problems

usually create corresponding feature
problems. A feature can be wrong,
missing, or superfluous. A missing feature
or case is easier to detect and correct.
A wrong feature could have deep design
implications.
Removing the features might complicate
the software, consume more resources,
and foster more bugs.

Feature Interactions Bugs

Feature interactions: providing correct, clear,

implementable and testable feature specifications is
not enough.
Features usually come in groups or related features.
The features of each group and the interaction of
features within each group are usually well tested.
The problem is unpredictable interactions between
feature groups or even between individual features.
For example, your telephone is provided with call
holding and call forwarding. The interactions
between these two features may have bugs.
Every application has its peculiar set of features and
a much bigger set of unspecified feature interaction
potentials and therefore feature interaction bugs.

Specification & feature

bug
remedies
Specification & feature bug Remedies: most feature

bugs are rooted in human to human communication

problems. One solution is the use of high level, formal
specification languages or systems.
Such languages and systems provide short term support
but, in the long run, do not solve the problem.
Short term support: specification languages facilitate
formalization of requirements and inconsistency and
ambiguity analysis.
Long term Support: assume that we have a great
specification language and that it can be used to create
unambiguous, complete specifications with unambiguous,
complete tests and consistent test criteria.
A specification written in that language could
theoretically be compiled into object code into HOL
programming.
The specification problem has been shifted to a higher
level but not eliminated.

Testing techniques for

functional Bugs.

Most functional test techniquesthat is those techniques which are

based on a behavioral description
of software, such as transaction
flow testing, syntax testing,
domain testing, logic testing and
state testing are useful in testing
functional bugs.

Structural Bugs

Various categories in Structural

Bugs:

Control and Sequence Bugs

Logic Bugs
Processing Bugs
Initialization Bugs
Data flow Bugs and Anomalies

Control and Sequence

Bugs

Control and sequence bugs include paths left out,

unreachable code, improper nesting of loops, loopback or loop-termination criteria incorrect, missing
process steps, duplicated processing, unnecessary
processing, rampaging GOTOs, ill-conceived switches,
spaghetti code, and worst of all pachinko code.
One reason for control flow bugs is that this area is
amenable to theoretical treatment.
Most of the control flow bugs are easily tested and
caught in unit testing.
Another reason for control flow bugs is that use of old
code especially ALP & COBOL code are dominated by
control flow bugs.
Control and sequence bugs at all levels are caught by
testing, especially structural testing more specifically
path testing combined with a bottom line functional
test based on a specification.

Logic Bugs

Bugs in logic are related to:

misunderstanding how case statements and logic
operators behave singly and combinations
Include non existent cases
Improper layout of cases
Impossible cases that are not impossible
a dont care case that matters
Improper negation of boolean expression
Improper simplification and combination of cases
Overlap of exclusive cases
Confusing exclusive OR with inclusive OR
The best defense against this kind of bugs is a
systematic analysis of cases.

Processing Bugs

Processing Bugs include arithmetic bugs, algebraic,

mathematical function evaluation, algorithm
selection and general processing.
The reasons for Processing Bugs:

Incorrect conversion from one data representation to

another.
Ignoring overflow
Ignoring the difference between +ve and -ve Zero
Improper use of <,>,<=,>=
Assumption to equality to zero in floating point
Improper comparison between various formats
Although these bugs are frequent 12% they tend to be
caught in good unit testing and also tend to have localized
effects.

Initialization Bugs

Initialization bugs are common, both

improper and superfluous initialization occur.
Typical initialization bugs are:

Forgetting initialize work space, registers

Forgetting initialize data areas before first use or
assuming that they are initialized else where
A bug in the first value of a loop control
parameter
Accepting the initial value without a validation
check
Initializing to the wrong format, data
representation or type

Data flow Bugs and

Anomalies

Most initialization bugs are special case of

data flow anomalies.
A data flow anomaly occurs when there is a
path along which we expect to do
something unreasonable with data, such as
using an uninitialized variable, attempting
to use a variable before it exists, modifying
and then not storing or using the result, or
initializing twice without an intermediate
use

Data Bugs

Data bugs include all bugs that arise from

the specification of data objects, their
formats, the number of such objects, and
their initial values.
The increase in the proportion of the source
statements devoted to data definition is a
direct consequence of two factors:

The dramatic reduction in the cost of main

memory and disc storage.
The high cost of creating and testing software.

Dynamic Versus Static

Dynamic data are transitory. Whatever their purpose,

they have a relatively short lifetime, typically the
processing time of the transaction. A storage object
may be used to hold dynamic data of different types,
with different formats, attributes, and residues.
The dynamic data bugs are due to leftover garbage in
a shared resource. This can be handled in one of
three ways:

Cleanup after use by the user

Common cleanup by the resource manager
No clean up

Static data are fixed in form and content. They

appear in the source code or database directly or
indirectly, for example a number, a string of
characters, or a bit pattern.
Compile time processing will solve the bugs caused
by static data.

Content, Structure and

Attributes

Contents- the actual bit pattern, character string, or

number put into a data structure. Content is a pure bit
pattern and has no meaning unless it is interpreted by
a hardware or software processor. All data bugs result
in the corruption or misinterpretation of content.
Structure- the size and shape and numbers that
describe the data object, that is the memory location
used to store the content.
Attributes- the specification meaning that is the
semantics associated with the contents of a data
object.
The severity and subtlety of bugs increases as we go
from content to attributes because things get less
formal in the direction.

Coding Bugs

Coding errors of all kinds can create any of

the other kinds of bugs.
Syntax errors are generally not important in
the scheme of things if the source language
translator has adequate syntax checking.
If a program has many syntax errors, then
we should expect many logic and coding
bugs
The documentation bugs are also called as
coding bugs which may mislead the
maintenance programmers.

Interface, Integration, and

System Bugs

Various categories of bugs in Interface,

Integration, and System Bugs are:

External Interfaces
Internal interfaces
Hardware Architecture
Operating system
Software Architecture
Control and Sequence Bugs
Integration bugs
System bugs

External Interfaces

The external interfaces are the means used to

communicate with the world.
These include devices, actuators, sensors, input
terminals, printers, and communication lines.
The primary design criterion for an interface with
outside world should be robustness.
All external interfaces, human or machine should
employ a protocol. The protocol may be wrong or
incorrectly implemented.
Other external interface bugs are: invalid timing or
sequence assumptions related to external signals
Misunderstanding external input or output formats
Insufficient tolerance to bad input data.

Internal Interfaces

Internal interfaces are in principle not different

from external interfaces but they are more
controlled.
A best example for internal interfaces are
communicating routines.
The external environment is fixed and the
system must adapt to it but the internal
environment, which consists of interfaces with
other components, can be negotiated.
Internal interfaces have the same problem as
external interfaces.
There is a trade-off between the internal
interfaces and the complexity of the interfaces.

Hardware Architecture

Bugs related to hardware architecture originate

mostly from misunderstanding how the hardware
works.
Examples of hardware architecture bugs:
Paging mechanism ignored
Address generation error
i/o device operation or instruction error
i/o device address error
Misunderstood device status code
Device protocol error
Expecting the device to respond too quickly
Waiting too long for a response
Ignoring channel throughput limits
Incorrect interrupt handling

Remedy for hardware

architecture and interface
problems

The remedy for hardware

architecture and interface
problems is two fold

Good programming and testing

Centralization of hardware interface
software in programs written by
hardware interface specialists.

Operating system Bugs

Program bugs related to the operating

system are a combination of hardware
architecture and interface bugs mostly
caused by a misunderstanding of what it is
the operating system does.
Use operating system interface specialists,
and use explicit interface modules or
macros for all operating system calls.
This approach may not eliminate the bugs
but at least will localize them and make
testing easier.

Software Architecture

Software architecture bugs are the kind that called

interactive.
Routines can pass unit and integration testing
without revealing such bugs.
Many of them depend on load, and their symptoms
emerge only when the system is stressed.
Sample for such bugs:

Assumption that there will be no interrupts

Failure to block or un block interrupts
Assumption that Code is reentrant or not reentrant
Assumption that memory and registers were initialized or
not initialized

Careful integration of modules and subjecting the

final system to a stress test are effective methods
for these bugs.

System level - Control and

sequence Bugs

These bugs include:

Ignored timing
Assuming that events occur in a specified sequence
Starting a process before its prerequisites are met
Waiting for an impossible combination of
prerequisites
Not recognizing when prerequisites have been met
Specifying wrong priority, program state and level
Missing, wrong, redundant or superfluous process
steps.

The remedy for these bugs is highly structured

sequence control.
Specialize, internal, sequence control
mechanisms are helpful.

Resource management
problems

Memory is subdivided into dynamically allocated

resources such as buffer blocks, queue blocks, task
control blocks, and overlay buffers.
External mass storage units such as discs, are
subdivided into memory resource pools.
Here are some resource management and usage
bugs:

Required resource not obtained

Wrong resource used
Resource is already in use
Resource not returned to the right pool
Fractionated resources not properly recombined
Resource dead lock

Resource management
Remedies

A design remedy that prevents bugs

is always preferable to a test method
that discovers them
The design remedy in resource
management is to keep the resource
structure simple: the fewest different
kinds of resources, the fewest pools,
and no private resource management

Resource management
Remedies-continued.,

Complicated resource structures are often designed in a

misguided attempt to save memory by three sized transactions.
The reasoning is faulty because:
Memory is cheap and getting cheaper
Complicated resource structures and multiple pools need
management software
The complicated scheme takes additional processing time, and all
resources are held in use a little longer.
The basis for sizing the resource is often wrong. A typical choice
is to make the buffer blocks length equal to the length required
by an average transaction-usually a poor choice.
A correct analysis shows that the optimum resource size is
usually proportional to the square root of the transactions length.
The second design remedy is that is to centralize the
management of all pools, either through centralized resource
managers, common resource management sub routines, resource
management macros, or a combination of these.

Integration Bugs

Integration bugs are bugs having to do with

the integration of, and with the interfaces
between, working and tested components.
These bugs results from inconsistencies or
incompatibilities between components.
The communication methods include data
structures, call sequences, registers,
semaphores, communication links and
protocols results in integration bugs.
The integration bugs do not constitute a big
bug category(9%) they are expensive
category because they are usually caught late
in the game and because they force changes
in several components and/or data structures.

System Bugs

System bugs covering all kinds of bugs that

cannot be ascribed to a component or to
their simple interactions, but result from the
totality of interactions between many
components such as programs, data,
hardware, and the operating systems.
There can be no meaningful system testing
until there has been thorough component
and integration testing.
System bugs are infrequent(1.7%) but very
important because they are often found only
after the system has been fielded.

Test and Test Design Bugs

Testing: testers have no immunity to bugs.

Tests require complicated scenarios and
databases.
They require code or the equivalent to
execute and consequently they can have
bugs.
Test criteria: if the specification is correct, it is
correctly interpreted and implemented, and a
proper test has been designed; but the
criterion by which the softwares behavior is
judged is incorrect or impossible.

Test Design BugsRemedies

The remedies for test bugs are:

Test Debugging
Test Quality Assurance
Test Execution Automation
Test Design Automation

Test Debugging

The first remedy for test bugs is

testing and debugging the tests.
The differences between the test
debugging and program debugging
are not fundamental.
Test debugging is easier because
tests, when properly designed are
simpler than programs.
Test debugging tend to have a
localized effects.

Test Quality Assurance

Programmers have the right to ask

how quality in independent testing
and test design is monitored.
The sequence like test testers, test
test testers? Should not converge.

Test Execution
Automation

The history of software bug removal and

prevention is indistinguishable from the
history of programming automation
aids.
Assemblers, loaders, compilers are
developed to reduce the incidence of
programmer and operator errors.
Test execution bugs are virtually
eliminated by various test execution
automation tools

Test Design Automation

Just as much of software

development has been automated
much test design can be and has
been automated.
For a given productivity rate,
automation reduces the bug countbe it for software or be it for tests.