Design Concepts

Design
Mitch Kapor, presented a software design

manifesto. He said:

Good software design should exhibit:

Firmness: A program should not have any bugs that

inhibit its function.

Commodity: A program should be suitable for the
purposes for which it was intended.
Delight: The experience of using the program should
be pleasurable one.

Design within the context of

software engineering
Beginning once software requirements have been

analyzed and modeled, software design is the last

software engineering action within the modeling
activity
and
sets
the
stage
for
construction(code generation and testing).
The requirements model, manifested by scenariobased, class-based, flow-oriented, and behavioral
elements, feed the design task.
Design produces a data/class design, an
architectural design, an interface design, and a
component design.
3

The data/class design transforms class models

into design class realizations and the requisite

data structures required to implement the
software.
The objects and relationships defined in the
CRC diagram and the detailed data content
depicted by class attributes and other notation
provide the basis for the data design action.
Part of class design may occur in conjunction
with the design of software architecture.
More detailed class design occurs as each
software component is designed.
4

The

architectural
design
defines
the
relationship
between
major
structural
elements of the software, the architectural
styles and design patterns that can be used to
achieve the requirements defined for the
system, and the constraints that affect the
way
in
which
architecture
can
be
implemented.

The architectural design representationthe

framework of a computer-based systemis

derived from the requirements model.
5

The interface design describes how the

software communicates with systems that

interoperate with it, and with humans who use
it. An interface implies a flow of information
(e.g., data and/or control) and a specific type
of behavior.
Therefore, usage scenarios and behavioral
models provide much of the information
required for interface design.

The component-level design transforms

structural elements of the software

architecture into a procedural description of
software components.
Information obtained from the class-based
models, flow models, and behavioral models
serve as the basis for component design.

Importance of software
quality
Design is the place where quality is fostered in software

engineering.
Design provides you with representations of software that can
be assessed for quality.
Design is the only way that you can accurately translate
stakeholders requirements into a finished software product or
system.
Software design serves as the foundation for all the software
engineering and software support activities that follow.
Without design, you risk building an unstable system
one that will fail when small changes are made;
One that may be difficult to test;
one whose quality cannot be assessed until late in the software

process, when time is short and many dollars have already been
spent.
8

Translating the requirements

model into the design model

Design and Quality

Three characteristics that serve as a guide for the
evaluation of a good design:
the design must implement all of the explicit

requirements contained in the analysis model, and

it must accommodate all of the implicit
requirements desired by the customer.
the design must be a readable, understandable
guide for those who generate code and for those
who test and subsequently support the software.
the design should provide a complete picture of
the software, addressing the data, functional, and
behavioral domains from an implementation
perspective.
10

Quality Guidelines
A design should exhibit an architecture that (1) has been created using

recognizable architectural styles or patterns, (2) is composed of

components that exhibit good design characteristics and (3) can be
implemented in an evolutionary fashion

For smaller systems, design can sometimes be developed linearly.

A design should be modular; that is, the software should be logically

partitioned into elements or subsystems

A design should contain distinct representations of data, architecture,
interfaces, and components.
A design should lead to data structures that are appropriate for the
classes to be implemented and are drawn from recognizable data
patterns.
A design should lead to components that exhibit independent
functional characteristics.
A design should lead to interfaces that reduce the complexity of
connections between components and with the external environment.
A design should be derived using a repeatable method that is driven
by information obtained during software requirements analysis.
A design should be represented using a notation that effectively
communicates its meaning.
11

Quality Attributes
Hewlett-Packard developed a set of software quality attributes that
has been given the acronym FURPSfunctionality, usability,
reliability, performance, and supportability. The FURPS quality
attributes represent a target for all software design:
Functionality is assessed by evaluating the feature set and
capabilities of the program, the generality of the functions that are
delivered, and the security of
the overall system.
Usability is assessed by considering human factors, consistency,
and documentation.
Reliability is evaluated by measuring the frequency and severity of
failure, the accuracy of output results, the mean-time-to-failure
(MTTF), the ability to recover from failure, and the predictability of
the program.
Performance is measured by considering processing speed,
response time, resource consumption, throughput, and efficiency.
12

 Supportability

combines the ability to extend the program

(extensibility), adaptability, serviceabilitythese three attributes
represent a more common term, maintainabilityand in addition,
testability, compatibility, configurability (the ability to organize and
control elements of the software configuration), the ease with
which a system can be installed, and the ease with which problems
can be localized.

13

The evolution of software

Design
The evolution of software design is a continuing process that

has now spanned almost six decades.

Early design work concentrated on criteria for the
development of modular programs and methods for refining
software structures in a top down manner .
Procedural aspects of design definition evolved into a
philosophy called structured programming .
Later work proposed methods for the translation of data flow
or data structure into a design definition.
Newer design approaches proposed an object-oriented
approach to design derivation.
More recent emphasis in software design has been on
software architecture and the design patterns that can be
used to implement software architectures and lower levels of
design abstractions
14

Design Concepts
Abstractiondata, procedure, control
Architecturethe overall structure of the software
Patternsconveys the essence of a proven design solution
Separation of concernsany complex problem can be more easily handled if it is

subdivided into pieces

Modularitycompartmentalization of data and function
Hidingcontrolled interfaces
Functional independencesingle-minded function and low coupling
Refinementelaboration of detail for all abstractions
Aspectsa mechanism for understanding how global requirements affect design
Refactoringa reorganization technique that simplifies the design
OO design concepts
Design Classesprovide design detail that will enable analysis classes to be implemented

15

1.Abstraction:
When you consider a modular solution to any problem,

many levels of abstraction can be posed. At the highest

level of abstraction, a solution is stated in broad terms using
the language of the problem environment. At lower levels of
abstraction, a more detailed description of the solution is
provided.
A procedural abstraction refers to a sequence of instructions
that have a specific and limited function.
The name of a procedural abstraction implies these
functions, but specific details are suppressed.
An example of a procedural abstraction would be the word
open for a door. Open implies a long sequence of procedural
steps (e.g., walk to the door, reach out and grasp knob, turn
knob and pull door, step away from moving door, etc.).

16

Procedural
Abstraction

open
details of enter
algorithm

implemented with a "knowledge" of the

object that is associated with enter

17

A data abstraction is a named collection of data

that describes a data object.

In the context of the procedural abstraction open,
we can define a data abstraction called door.
Like any data object, the data abstraction
for door would encompass a set of attributes
that describe the door (e.g., door type, swing
direction,
opening
mechanism,
weight,
dimensions).
It follows that the procedural abstraction open
would make use of information contained in the
attributes of the data abstraction door.

18

Data
door
Abstraction

manufacturer
model number
type
swing direction
inserts
lights
type
number
weight
opening mechanism

implemented as a data structure

19

2. Architecture
The overall structure of the software and the ways

in which that structure

integrity for a system.

provides

conceptual

architecture is the structure or organization of

program components (modules), the manner in

which these components interact, and the
structure of data that are used by the
components.
20

 Shaw and Garlan

describe a set of properties that should be

specified as part of an architectural design:

Structural properties. This aspect of the architectural design representation

defines the components of a system (e.g., modules, objects, filters) and the
manner in which those components are packaged and interact with one
another. For example, objects are packaged to encapsulate both data and the
processing that manipulates the data and interact via the invocation of
methods
Extra-functional properties. The architectural design description should
address how the design architecture achieves requirements for performance,
capacity, reliability, security, adaptability, and other system characteristics.
Families of related systems. The architectural design should draw upon

repeatable patterns that are commonly encountered in the design of families

of similar systems. In essence, the design should have the ability to reuse
architectural building blocks.

21

 Given the specification of these properties, the architectural

design can be represented using one or more of a number of

different models.
Structural models represent architecture as an organized
collection of program components.
Framework models increase the level of design abstraction
by attempting to identify repeatable architectural design
frameworks that are encountered in similar types of
applications.
Dynamic models address the behavioral aspects of the
program architecture, indicating how the structure or system
configuration may change as a function of external events.
Process models focus on the design of the business or
technical process that the system must accommodate.
Finally, functional models can be used to represent the
functional hierarchy of a system.
22

3. Patterns
Brad Appleton defines a design pattern in the following
manner: A pattern is a named nugget of insight which
conveys the essence of a proven solution to a recurring
problem within a certain context amidst competing
concerns
The intent of each design pattern is to provide a
description that enables a designer to determine
(1) whether the pattern is applicable to the current work,
(2) whether the pattern can be reused (hence, saving
design time), and
(3) Whether the pattern can serve as a guide for
developing a similar, but functionally or structurally
different pattern.
23

Design Pattern Template

Pattern namedescribes the essence of the pattern in a short but expressive

name
Intentdescribes the pattern and what it does
Also-known-aslists any synonyms for the pattern
Motivationprovides an example of the problem
Applicabilitynotes specific design situations in which the pattern is
applicable
Structuredescribes the classes that are required to implement the pattern
Participantsdescribes the responsibilities of the classes that are required to
implement the pattern
Collaborationsdescribes how the participants collaborate to carry out their
responsibilities
Consequencesdescribes the design forces that affect the pattern and the
potential trade-offs that must be considered when the pattern is implemented
Related patternscross-references related design patterns

24

4. Separation of
Any complex problem can be more easily handled if
Concerns
it is subdivided into pieces that can each be solved
and/or optimized independently

A concern is a feature or behavior that is specified as

part of the requirements model for the software.

By separating concerns into smaller, and therefore

more manageable pieces, a problem takes less effort

and time to solve.

25

For two problems, p1 and p2, if the perceived

complexity of p1 is greater than the perceived

complexity of p2, it follows that the effort required
to solve p1 is greater than the effort required to
solve p2.
As a general case, this result is intuitively obvious.
It does take more time to solve a difficult problem.
It also follows that the perceived complexity of two
problems when they are combined is often greater
than the sum of the perceived complexity when
each is taken separately.
This leads to a divide-and-conquer strategyits
easier to solve a complex problem when you break
it into manageable pieces.
26

Modularity
Software is divided into separately named and addressable components,

sometimes called modules, that are integrated to satisfy problem

requirements.
"modularity is the single attribute of software that allows a program to be
intellectually manageable" .
Monolithic software (i.e., a large program composed of a single module)
cannot be easily grasped by a software engineer.
The number of control paths, span of reference, number of variables, and overall

complexity would make understanding close to impossible.

In almost all instances, you should break the design into many modules,

hoping to make understanding easier and as a consequence, reduce the cost

required to build the software.

27

Modularity and Software

Cost

28

 the effort (cost) to develop an individual software module does decrease as

the total number of modules increases.

Given the same set of requirements, more modules means smaller individual
size.
However, as the number of modules grows, the effort (cost) associated with
integrating the modules also grows.
These characteristics lead to a total cost or effort curve shown in the figure.
There is a number, M, of modules that would result in minimum development
cost, but we do not have the necessary sophistication to predict M with
assurance.
You modularize a design (and the resulting program) so that
development can be more easily planned;
software increments can be defined and delivered;
changes can be more easily accommodated;

and
long-term maintenance can be conducted without serious side effects.
testing and debugging can be conducted more efficiently,

29

Information Hiding
The principle of information hiding suggests that modules be

characterized by design decisions that (each) hides from all others.

In other words, modules should be specified and designed so that

information (algorithms and data) contained within a module is

inaccessible to other modules that have no need for such
information.
The use of information hiding as a design criterion for modular

systems provides the greatest benefits when modifications are

required during testing and later during software maintenance.
Because most data and procedural detail are hidden from other parts

of the software, inadvertent errors introduced during modification are

less likely to propagate to other locations within the software.

30

Information
module
Hiding

algorithm

controlled
data structure
interface
details of external interface
resource allocation policy

clients

"secret"

a specific design decision

31

Functional
Functional independence is achieved by developing modules with
Independence
"single-minded"
function and an "aversion" to excessive interaction

with other modules.

Software with effective modularity, that is, independent
modules, is easier to develop because function can be
compartmentalized and interfaces are simplified
Independent modules are easier to maintain (and test)
because secondary effects caused by design or code
modification are limited, error propagation is reduced, and
reusable modules are possible.
Functional independence is a key to good design, and
design is the key to software quality.
Independence is assessed using two qualitative criteria:
cohesion and coupling.

32

 Cohesion is an indication of the relative functional strength of a module.

A cohesive module performs a single task, requiring little interaction with

other components in other parts of a program. Stated simply, a cohesive

module should (ideally) do just one thing.

Coupling is an indication of the relative interdependence among modules.

Coupling is an indication of interconnection among modules in a software

structure.
Coupling depends on the interface complexity between modules, the point at
which entry or reference is made to a module, and what data pass across the
interface.
In software design, you should strive for the lowest possible coupling.
Simple connectivity among modules results in software that is easier to
understand and less prone to a ripple effect , caused when errors occur at one
location and propagate throughout a system.

33

Refinement
A program is developed by successively refining levels of

procedural detail.
A hierarchy is developed by decomposing a macroscopic
statement of function (a procedural abstraction) in a stepwise
fashion until programming language statements are reached.
Refinement is actually a process of elaboration.
You begin with a statement of function (or description of
information) that is defined at a high level of abstraction.
That is, the statement describes function or information
conceptually but provides no information about the internal
workings of the function or the internal structure of the
information.
You then elaborate on the original statement, providing more
and more detail as each successive refinement (elaboration)
occurs.
34

Stepwise
open
Refinement
walk to door;
reach for knob;
open door;
walk through;
close door.

repeat until door opens

turn knob clockwise;
if knob doesn't turn, then
take key out;
find correct key;
insert in lock;
endif
pull/push door
move out of way;
end repeat
35

Aspects
Consider two requirements, A and B. Requirement

A crosscuts requirement B if a software

decomposition [refinement] has been chosen in
which B cannot be satisfied without taking A into
account.
An aspect is a representation of a cross-cutting
concern.

36

AspectsAn Example
Consider two requirements for the SafeHomeAssured.com WebApp.

Requirement A is described via the use-case Access camera surveillance

via the Internet. A design refinement would focus on those modules that
would enable a registered user to access video from cameras placed
throughout a space. Requirement B is a generic security requirement that
states that a registered user must be validated prior to using
SafeHomeAssured.com. This requirement is applicable for all functions
that are available to registered SafeHome users. As design refinement
occurs, A* is a design representation for requirement A and B* is a design
representation for requirement B. Therefore, A* and B* are representations
of concerns, and B* cross-cuts A*.
An aspect is a representation of a cross-cutting concern. Therefore, the
design representation, B*, of the requirement, a registered user must be
validated prior to using SafeHomeAssured.com, is an aspect of the
SafeHome WebApp.

37

Refactoring
refactoring is a reorganization technique that

simplifies the design (or code) of a component

without changing its function or behavior.
Fowler defines refactoring in the following
manner:
"Refactoring is the process of changing a software

system in such a way that it does not alter the

external behavior of the code [design] yet
improves its internal structure.

When software is refactored, the existing design

is examined for

redundancy
unused design elements
inefficient or unnecessary algorithms
poorly constructed or inappropriate data structures
or any other design failure that can be corrected to

yield a better design.

38

OO Design
Concepts

Design classes
Inheritanceall responsibilities of a superclass is

immediately inherited by all subclasses

Messagesstimulate some behavior to occur in the
receiving object
Polymorphisma characteristic that greatly reduces
the effort required to extend the design

39

Design Classes
As the design model evolves, you will define a set of design classes that

refine the analysis classes by providing design detail that will enable the
classes to be implemented, and implement a software infrastructure that
supports the business solution.
Five different types of design classes, each representing a different layer of
the design architecture, can be developed
User interface classes define all abstractions that are necessary for human
computer interaction (HCI).
Business domain classes are often refinements of the analysis classes
defined earlier. The classes identify the attributes and services (methods)
that are required to implement some element of the business domain.
Process classes implement lower-level business abstractions required to
fully manage the business domain classes.
Persistent classes represent data stores (e.g., a database) that will persist
beyond the execution of the software.
System classes implement software management and control functions
that enable the system to operate and communicate within its computing
environment and with the outside world.

40

 Arlow and Neustadt suggest that each design class be

reviewed to ensure that it is well-formed.

They define four characteristics of a well-formed design
class:
Complete and sufficient: A design class should be the
complete encapsulation of all attributes and methods that
can reasonably be expected.
Primitiveness: Methods associated with a design class
should be focused on accomplishing one service for the
class. Once the service has been implemented with a
method, the class should not provide another way to
accomplish the same thing.
High cohesion: A cohesive design class has a small,
focused set of responsibilities and single-mindedly applies
attributes and methods to implement those responsibilities.

41

 Low coupling:
Within the design model, it is necessary for design classes to

collaborate with one another.

However, collaboration should be kept to an acceptable minimum.
If a design model is highly coupled (all design classes collaborate
with all other design classes), the system is difficult to implement,
to test, and to maintain over time.
In general, design classes within a subsystem should have only
limited knowledge of other classes.
This restriction, called the Law of Demeter , suggests that a
method should only send messages to methods in neighboring
classes.

42

Design class for Floor plan and

composite aggregation for the class

43

Dimensions of the Design Model

44

 The design model can be viewed in two different dimensions.

The process dimension indicates the evolution of the design model

as design tasks are executed as part of the software process.

The abstraction dimension represents the level of detail as each
element of the analysis model is transformed into a design
equivalent and then refined iteratively.
The dashed line indicates the boundary between the analysis and
design models.
In some cases, a clear distinction between the analysis and design
models is possible.
In other cases, the analysis model slowly blends into the design
and a clear distinction is less obvious.

45

Design Model
Elements
Data elements

Data model --> data structures

Data model --> database architecture

Architectural elements
Application domain
Analysis classes, their relationships, collaborations and

behaviors are transformed into design realizations

Patterns and styles (Chapters 9 and 12)

Interface elements
the user interface (UI)
external interfaces to other systems, devices, networks or

other producers or consumers of information

internal interfaces between various design components.

Component elements
Deployment elements

46

Data Design Elements

data design (sometimes referred to as data architecting)

creates a model of data and/or information that is

represented at a high level of abstraction (the
customer/users view of data).
This data model is then refined into progressively more
implementation-specific representations that can be
processed by the computer-based system.

47

Architectural Design
Elements
The architectural design for software is the
equivalent to the floor plan of a house.
The floor plan depicts the overall layout of the
rooms; their size, shape, and relationship to
one another; and the doors and windows that
allow movement into and out of the rooms.
The floor plan gives us an overall view of the
house.
Architectural design elements give us an
overall view of the software.
48

Architectural Design
The
architectural model is derived from three
Elements
sources:

information about the application domain for the

software to be built;
specific requirements model elements such as data
flow diagrams or analysis classes, their relationships
and collaborations for the problem at hand, and
the availability of architectural patterns and styles.

49

Interface Design Elements

The interface design for software is analogous to a set of detailed drawings

(and specifications) for the doors, windows, and external utilities of a house.
These drawings depict the size and shape of doors and windows, the manner

in which they operate, the way in which utility connections (e.g., water,
electrical, gas, telephone) come into the house and are distributed among the
rooms depicted in the floor plan.
They tell us where the doorbell is located, whether an intercom is to be used

to announce a visitors presence, and how a security system is to be installed.

In essence, the detailed drawings (and specifications) for the doors, windows,

and external utilities tell us how things and information flow into and out of
the house and within the rooms that are part of the floor plan.
The interface design elements for software depict information flows into and

out of the system and how it is communicated among the components

defined as part of the architecture.

50

There are three important elements of interface

design:
(1) the user interface (UI);
(2) external interfaces to other systems, devices,
networks, or other producers or consumers of
information; and
(3) internal interfaces between various design
components.
These interface design elements allow the software
to communicate externally and enable internal
communication and collaboration among the
components that populate the software architecture.
51

Interface representation for control

panel

52

Component-Level Design
Elements
The component-level design for software is the equivalent to a set

of detailed drawings (and specifications) for each room in a house.

These drawings depict wiring and plumbing within each room, the
location of electrical receptacles and wall switches, faucets, sinks,
showers, tubs, drains, cabinets, and closets.
They also describe the flooring to be used, the moldings to be
applied, and every other detail associated with a room.
The component-level design for software fully describes the
internal detail of each software component.
To accomplish this, the component-level design defines data
structures for all local data objects and algorithmic detail for all
processing that occurs within a component and an interface that
allows access to all component operations (behaviors).

53

A UML Component
Diagram
SensorManagement

Sensor

54

a component named SensorManagement

(part of the SafeHome security function)

is represented.
A dashed arrow connects the component to a
class named Sensor that is assigned to it.
The SensorManagement component
performs all functions associated with
SafeHome sensors including monitoring and
configuring them.
55

Deployment-level design elements indicate

how software functionality and subsystems will

be allocated within the physical computing
environment that will support the software.
For example, the elements of the SafeHome
product are configured to operate within three
primary computing environmentsa homebased PC, the SafeHome control panel, and a
server housed at CPI Corp. (providing Internetbased access to the system).
56

A UML Deployment Diagram

57

 In the figure, three computing environments are shown (in

actuality, there would be more including sensors, cameras,

and others).
The subsystems (functionality) housed within each
computing element are indicated.
For example, the personal computer houses subsystems
that implement security, surveillance, home management,
and communications features.
In addition, an external access subsystem has been
designed to manage all attempts to access the SafeHome
system from an external source.
Each subsystem would be elaborated to indicate the
components that it implements.

58

Software Architecture
The software architecture of a program or computing

system is the structure or structures of the system,

which comprise software components, the externally
visible properties of those components, and the
relationships among them.
it is a representation that enables you to
(1) analyze the effectiveness of the design in meeting

its stated requirements,

(2) consider architectural alternatives at a stage when
making design changes is still relatively easy, and
(3) reduce the risks associated with the construction of
the software.

59

In

the context of architectural design, a software

component can be something as simple as a program
module or an object-oriented class, but it can also be
extended to include databases and middleware that
enable the configuration of a network of clients and servers.
The properties of components are those characteristics
that are necessary for an understanding of how the
components interact with other components. At the
architectural level, internal properties (e.g., details of an
algorithm) are not specified.
The relationships between components can be as simple as
a procedure call from one module to another or as complex
as a database access protocol.

60

Why Is Architecture
Important?

Representations of software architecture are an

enabler for communication between all parties
(stakeholders) interested in the development of a
computer-based system.
The architecture highlights early design decisions
that will have a profound impact on all software
engineering work that follows and, as important,
on the ultimate success of the system as an
operational entity.
Architecture constitutes a relatively small,
intellectually graspable model of how the system is
structured and how its components work together
61