Chapter 10: Perception of sound

If a tree falls in the

woods and there is
no one around, does
it make a sound?
3 requirements for
sound
1. Vibrating body:
something to create
mobile pressure
changes

Vibrating bodies
Vibrating bodies create pressure changes capable
of propagating from the source. Its the pressure
change that serves as the auditory signal

3 requirements for sound

2. An elastic
medium: A
substance capable of
propagating pressure
changes. Usually this
is air (but not always).

3 requirements for sound

3. Receptive organ: something

to translate physical pressure
changes into a perceptual
experience usually ears.
Difference between physical
energy and sound (perceptual
experience)

Sound pressure wave

Physical properties and perceptual experience

Wavelength = cycles per second; Hz

Range of human frequency perception

Note: peak sensitivity around 3.5KHz; full range roughly 20-20,000Hz;
drops from top with age.

Sound pressure wave

Amplitude: height of wave; measured in dB

Sound pressure wave

Overtones: no pressure
wave occurs in isolation
overtones are other
frequencies that occur along
fundamental frequency
(frequency that accounts for
pitch perception) that affect
character of sound
perception: timbre. For
most musical instrument
overtones are harmonics
(multiples of fundamental).
Note: on graphs
instruments are not playing
exactly the same
fundamental

Behavior of sound waves

While sound pressure waves are reflected and absorbed
variously by different surfaces, like sound waves; they
also can travel around, and through surfaces, unlike
light waves; which can make them much more difficult
to completely block out, hence the ability to hear
something even when it is not seen.

Echoes: reflected sound - different environments have

different echo characteristics or acoustics, hence the
sound quality of the environment varies. Generally
speaking the harder surfaces tend to reflect more
sound, while more porous surfaces tend to absorb more
sound.

Speed of sound: the speed with which a pressure

wave travels through the medium is determined by the
density of the molecules in the medium -- the denser
the medium the faster the propagation. Air is the most
typical medium for sound, and in air the speed of sound
is 340 meters per second. But sound waves actually
travel faster through water, ground, and even steel.

Impedance: the degree to which the medium resists

the propagation of the sound wave. Denser mediums
tend to propagate sound waves faster, but they also
tend to reduce the amplitude of the wave more quickly,
thus reducing the perceivable distance of the wave.

Receptive organ: Ear

Ear: 3 major parts; outer, middle,

inner

Receptive organ: Ear

1) The outer ear: structures

a) Pinna: fleshy, cartilaginous, structure which extrudes from head
Pinna is important for helping to funnel sound further into ear, and as gross
sound localizer.
b) Auditory canal: tube structure which directs sound inward to middle ear.
canal has resonance frequency of around 3,000 hz, which means that it
tends to vibrate along with frequencies of 3,000 and therefore amplify those
sounds. Interestingly enough, there are only modest number of speech sound
which are in the range of 3,000 hz, most are more in the range of 1,000-2,000
hz, however, high pitch screams are around this frequency typically.

Middle ear

Tympanic membrane: eardrum (sometimes included with

outer ear) thin oval shaped membrane which vibrates in
response to incoming wave. Tympanic membrane is highly
sensitive, but can often absorb punctures and continue
functioning. Main job is to vibrate ossicles.

Middle ear
a) ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes).
the tiny bones of the middle ear which
vibrate in response to vibrating of
tympanic membrane.
Major purpose is to amplify the sound
wave to help reduce affects of increased
impedance of cochlear fluid.
Impedance matching device: about
4dB recovered from hinge design of
ossicles, about 23dB from funneling
from tympanic membrane to oval
window
b) oval window: connected to stapes,
vibrates in response to stapes and
propagates sound wave to inner ear.
Acoustic reflex: loud, low sounds
trigger stiffing of inner ear muscles
restricting movement. Not effective for
high pitches.

Inner ear
Composed of
semi-circular
canals
(vestibular
sense body
posture,
balance, etc)
and cochlea.
Cochlea is main
structure for
auditory info
processing

Cochlea
Three main structures:
1) Vestibular canal: topmost
section of cochlea
2) Tympanic canal: bottom
most section of cochlea
3) Cochlear duct: middle canal
of cochlea, filled with different
type of fluid than tympanic and
vestibular canals. Mixing of
fluids can impair hearing.
Also: Round window: small
elastic structure covering a
small opening between
tympanic canal and middle ear.
This structure helps to
equalize pressure from
propagated wave started at
oval window.

Cochlea
Basilar membrane:
membrane separating
tympanic canal from cochlear
duct.
Organ of Corti: auditory
receptor organ which rests on
basilar membrane inside
cochlear duct. Is to ear what
retina is to eye.
Tectorial membrane: the
membrane that extends up
from Riessners membrane
(the diagonal membrane
which separates the
vestibular canal from the
cochlear duct) and arches
over and contacts some of
the Organ of Corti hair cells.

Cochlea
Organ of Corti hair
cells: there are two types:
inner and outer. Inner
cells are less in number
(4,5000) and are situated
near where the tectorial
membrane attaches to
Riessner's membrane.
Inner are not directly
connected to tectorial
membrane.
Outer cells are greater in
number (15,500), situated
more centrally on Organ
of Corti, and are
connected to tectorial
membrane. However,
outers have very limited
connections to auditory
nerve (95% of auditory
nerve connected to IHC)

Action in Cochlea
Wave enters from the piston-like action of stapes moving in and out of oval
window. Wave throughout cochlear fluid and displaces basiliar membrane in
cochlear duct. The waving motion of basilar membrane causes tectorial
membrane to displace in opposite direction of basilar membrane and get "pulled
and tugged" by connections to outer hair cells. This "pulling and tugging" action
amplifies the movement of fluid in cochlear duct which causes displacement of
inner hair cells, which have many direct connections to auditory nerve.

Theories of pitch perception: Temporal theory

This theory (also called frequency theory) states that the entire
basilar membrane vibrates in consonance with the frequency of the
wave entering the cochlea. This idea was subsequently proved
incorrect as it was found that the differences in the width and
thickness along the length of basilar membrane made it physically
impossible for it to vibrate as frequency theory predicts. However it
was found that individual auditory nerve fibers could match low
frequency vibrations, and could volley to match frequencies up to
about 4,000 hz.

Theories of pitch perception: Place theory

First proposed by Herman von Helmholz, who noted that the basilar membrane was narrow
at the base and wider at the apex. Helmholtz believed that this meant that the basilar
membrane was composed of separate fibers which resonated at different frequencies along
the basilar membrane, like a piano keyboard.
Place theory found support in studies by Von Bekesey, who constructed a replica of the
basilar membrane to study the behavior of the waves inside the cochlea. Bekesey found that
different frequency waves peaked out at different places along the basilar membrane with
high frequencies nearer the base, and low frequencies nearer the apex.
However, Bekesey also found that localizing the place of maximal stimulation was much
more precise for high rather than low frequencies.

Duplicity theory

A combination of frequency and place operate to

explain the range of human pitch perception -and varying sensitivities to pitch.

20 to 500 -- frequency coding only

500 to 4,000 -- frequency and place coding
4,000 to 20,000 -- place coding only
Note that it is frequencies from around 1,000 3,000 for which humans have greatest sensitivity
and in which comprises most of human speech.

Auditory nerve
Made up of
about 30,000
individual
fibers mostly
emanating
from IHC.
Nerve fibers
differ in
spontaneous
activity
(baseline firing
rate)
depending on
where they
make contact
with IHC

OH
C
Hi spon.
activity

IHC

Med spon.
activity

Lo spon. activity

Frequency tuned auditory nerve fibers

Suppose we present different frequencies at minimal dB level to
individual nerve fibers.
Frequency preference corresponds to location on basilar membrane
But what about loudness perception?

Loudness perception: Where does fiber connect to IHC?

B graph shows two fibers from

same location on basilar
membrane (therefore same
frequency preference). When
preferred frequency is
presented at different dB
levels to each with different
spontaneous activity levels.
Higher responds to lower
intensity (lower threshold) but
has lower saturation point.
Lower (darker line) responds
later but saturates later as
well.

Auditory processing beyond cochlea

At left and right cochlear nuclei auditory processing is monaural; but past
(superior olives; inferior colliculi etc.) processing becomes binaural. Thus,
two-eared cues for sound localization can be exploited.

Sound localization: Cue 1 interaural time differences

L ear

Delay line

R ear

Binaural
cell

Direct line

Inter-aural time
differences: the difference in
arrival time of sound wave at
two ears.Sound arrives at
nearer ear first (when not
perfectly at mid-line).
Probably coded by binaural
cells with variable time delays
(delay lines) built into inputs
from nearer ear (a).
It appears that time
differences are more effective
cue for lower frequencies,
while amplitude differences
are more effective for higher
frequencies.

Sound localization: Cue 1 interaural intensity differences

The difference in
loudness at the two
ears created by
shadowing effects of
head and pinnas, as
well as differing
distances of sound
producing source from
two ears. Shadowing
effect is far less for
lower frequencies,
which are often large
to go around head
unblocked.

Auditory cortex
Tonotopic organization with magnification of mid-range
frequencies. Beginning of processing for more meaningful
and categorical (speech vs. dog bark) aspects of audition.