10.

Strain Transformation

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

Apply the stress

transformation methods
derived in Chapter 9 to
similarly transform strain
Discuss various ways of
measuring strain
Develop important
material-property
relationships; including generalized form of
Hookes law
Discuss and use theories to predict the failure of a
material
1

10. Strain Transformation

CHAPTER OUTLINE
1. Plane Strain
2. General Equations of Plane-Strain
Transformation
3. *Mohrs Circle: Plane Strain
4. *Absolute Maximum Shear Strain
5. Strain Rosettes
6. Material-Property Relationships
7. *Theories of Failure

10. Strain Transformation

10.1 PLANE STRAIN

As explained in Chapter 2.2, general state of strain

in a body is represented by a combination of 3
components of normal strain (x, y, z), and 3
components of shear strain (xy, xz, yz).
Strain components at a pt determined by using
strain gauges, which is measured in specified
directions.
A plane-strained element is subjected to two
components of normal strain (x, y) and one
component of shear strain, xy.
3

10. Strain Transformation

10.1 PLANE STRAIN

The deformations are shown graphically below.

Note that the normal strains are produced by
changes in length of the element in the x and y
directions, while shear strain is produced by the
relative rotation of two adjacent sides of the
element.

10. Strain Transformation

10.1 PLANE STRAIN

Note that plane stress does not always cause plane

strain.
In general, unless = 0, the Poisson effect will
prevent the simultaneous occurrence of plane strain
and plane stress.
Since shear stress and shear
strain not affected by Poissons
ratio, condition of xz = yz = 0
requires xz = yz = 0.

10. Strain Transformation

10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION

Sign Convention
To use the same convention as
defined in Chapter 2.2.
With reference to differential
element shown, normal strains
xz and yz are positive if they
cause elongation along the x
and y axes
Shear strain xy is positive if the interior angle AOB
becomes smaller than 90.

10. Strain Transformation

10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION

Sign Convention
Similar to plane stress, when measuring the normal
and shear strains relative to the x and y axes, the
angle will be positive provided it follows the
curling of the right-hand fingers, counterclockwise.
Normal and shear strains
Before we develop the
strain-transformation eqn for
determining x;, we must determine
the elongation of a line segment dx
that lies along the x axis and
subjected to strain components.
7

10. Strain Transformation

10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION

Normal and shear strains

Components of line dx and dx are elongated and
we add all elongations together.
x' x dx cos y dy sin xy dy cos
From Eqn 2.2, the normal strain along the line dx is
x =x/dx. Using Eqn 10-1,
2

x ' x cos y sin xy sin cos

10 - 2

10. Strain Transformation

10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION

Normal and shear strains

To get the transformation equation for xy, consider
amount of rotation of each of the line segments dx
and dy when subjected to strain components.
Thus,
y ' x dx sin y dy cos xy dy sin

10. Strain Transformation

10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION

Normal and shear strains

Using Eqn 10-1 with = y/x,
x y sin cos xy sin 2

10 - 3

As shown, dy rotates by an amount .

10

10. Strain Transformation

10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION

Normal and shear strains

Using identities sin ( + 90) = cos ,
cos ( + 90) = sin ,
2
x y sin 90 cos 90 xy sin 90

x y cos sin xy cos 2

Thus we get

x' y'

2 x y sin cos xy cos 2 sin 2

10 - 4
11

10. Strain Transformation

10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION

Normal and shear strains

Using trigonometric identities sin 2 = 2 sin cos,
cos2 = (1 + cos2 )/2 and sin2 + cos2 = 1, we
rewrite Eqns 10-2 and 10-4 as

x y x y
xy
x'

cos 2
sin 2
2
2
2

x' y'
xy
x y
sin 2

cos 2
2
2
2

10 - 5

10 - 6
12

10. Strain Transformation

10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION

Normal and shear strains

If normal strain in the y direction is required, it can
be obtained from Eqn 10-5 by substituting ( + 90)
for . The result is

x y x y
xy
y'

cos 2
sin 2
2
2
2

10 - 6

13

10. Strain Transformation

10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION

Principal strains
We can orientate an element at a pt such that the
elements deformation is only represented by
normal strains, with no shear strains.
The material must be isotropic, and the axes along
which the strains occur must coincide with the axes
that define the principal axes.
Thus from Eqns 9-4 and 9-5,
xy
tan 2 p
x y

10 - 8
14

10. Strain Transformation

10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION

Principal strains
x y
1, 2

x y

xy

10 - 9

Maximum in-plane shear strain

Using Eqns 9-6, 9-7 and 9-8, we get

x y

tan 2 s

xy

max
in - plane

x y

10 - 10
xy

10 - 11
15

10. Strain Transformation

10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION

Maximum in-plane shear strain

Using Eqns 9-6, 9-7 and 9-8, we get

avg

x y

10 - 12

16

10. Strain Transformation

10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION

IMPORTANT
Due to Poisson effect, the state of plane strain is not
a state of plane stress, and vice versa.
A pt on a body is subjected to plane stress when the
surface of the body is stress-free.
Plane strain analysis may be used within the plane
of the stresses to analyze the results from the
gauges. Remember though, there is normal strain
that is perpendicular to the gauges.
When the state of strain is represented by the
principal strains, no shear strain will act on the
element.
17

10. Strain Transformation

10.2 GENERAL EQNS OF PLANE-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION

IMPORTANT
The state of strain at the pt can also be represented
in terms of the maximum in-plane shear strain. In
this case, an average normal strain will also act on
the element.
The element representing the maximum in-plane
shear strain and its associated average normal
strains is 45 from the element representing the
principal strains.

18

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.1
A differential element of material at a pt is subjected to
a state of plane strain x = 500(10-6), y = 300(10-6),
which tends to distort the element as shown.
Determine the equivalent strains acting on an element
oriented at the pt, clockwise 30 from the original
position.

19

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.1 (SOLN)

Since is counterclockwise, then = 30, use
strain-transformation Eqns 10-5 and 10-6,
x y x y
xy
x'

cos 2
sin 2
2
2
2
500 300

10

500 300

10
cos
2

30

200 10 6

x ' 213 106

sin 2 30

20

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.1 (SOLN)

Since is counterclockwise, then = 30, use
strain-transformation Eqns 10-5 and 10-6,

x' y '
xy
x y
sin 2

cos 2
2
2
2

500 300

sin 2 30

200 10 6

cos 2 30
2

x ' y ' 793 10 6

21

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.1 (SOLN)

Strain in the y direction can be obtained from Eqn
10-7 with = 30. However, we can also obtain y
using Eqn 10-5 with = 60 ( = 30 + 90),
replacing x with y
500 300

6
y'
10

500 300

10
cos
2
60

200 106

sin 2 60
2

y ' 13.4 106

22

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.1 (SOLN)

The results obtained tend to deform the element as
shown below.

23

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.2
A differential element of material at a pt is subjected to
a state of plane strain defined by x = 350(10-6),
y = 200(10-6), xy = 80(10-6), which tends to distort the
element as shown. Determine the principal strains at
the pt and associated orientation of the element.

24

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.2 (SOLN)

Orientation of the element
From Eqn 10-8, we have
6
xy
80(10 )
tan 2 p

x y 350 200 (106 )

Thus 2 p 8.28 and 8.28 180 172, so that

p 4.14 and 85.9

Each of these angles is measured
positive counterclockwise, from the
x axis to the outward normals on
each face of the element.
25

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.2 (SOLN)

Principal strains
From Eqn 10-9,

1, 2

x y
x y

2
2

350 200 10
2

xy

350 200

75.0 106 277.9 10 6

1 203 10 6

2 353 106

80

10

26

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.2 (SOLN)

Principal strains
We can determine which of these two strains deforms
the element in the x direction by applying Eqn 10-5
with = 4.14. Thus
x y x y
xy
x'

cos 2
sin 2
2
2
2
350 200
350 200

6
6

10
10 cos 4.14
2
2

80 10 6

sin 2 4.14
2

x ' 353 106

27

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.2 (SOLN)

Principal strains
Hence x = 2. When subjected to the principal strains,
the element is distorted as shown.

28

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.3
A differential element of material at a pt is subjected to
a state of plane strain defined by x = 350(10-6),
y = 200(10-6), xy = 80(10-6), which tends to distort the
element as shown. Determine the maximum in-plane
shear strain at the pt and associated orientation of the
element.

29

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.3 (SOLN)

Orientation of the element
From Eqn 10-10,

6
x y

350

200

10

tan 2 s
6

80 10
xy

Thus, 2 s 81.72 and 81.72 180 261.72, so that

s 40.9 and 130.9

Note that this orientation is 45 from that shown in
Example 10.2 as expected.

30

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.3 (SOLN)

Maximum in-plane shear strain
Applying Eqn 10-11,
2
max

x
xy
y
in - plane

2
2

350 200

80

10

556 106
in - plane
max
The proper sign of in - plane can be obtained by applying
Eqn 10-6 with s = 40.9.

max

31

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.3 (SOLN)

Maximum in-plane shear strain
x' y ' x y
xy

sin 2
cos 2
2
2
2
350 200

10 sin 2 40.9
2

80 106

cos 2 40.9
2

x ' y ' 556 10 6

max to distort the element so that the right angle
Thus tends
in - plane
between dx and dy is decreased (positive sign
convention).
32

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.3 (SOLN)

Maximum in-plane shear strain
There are associated average normal strains imposed
on the element determined from Eqn 10-12:
x y 350 200 6
avg

10 75 106
2
2
These strains tend to
cause the element to contract.

33

10. Strain Transformation

*10.3 MOHRS CIRCLE: PLANE STRAIN

Advantage of using Mohrs circle for plane strain

transformation is we get to see graphically how the
normal and shear strain components at a pt vary
from one orientation of the element to the next.
Eliminate parameter in Eqns 10-5 and 10-6 and
2
rewrite as
2 xy
x avg 2 R 2
10 - 13

where

avg

x y

x y

R
2

xy

34

10. Strain Transformation

*10.3 MOHRS CIRCLE: PLANE STRAIN

Procedure for Analysis

Construction of the circle
Establish a coordinate system such that the
abscissa represents the normal strain , with
positive to the right, and the ordinate represents half
the value of the shear strain, /2, with positive
downward.
Using positive sign convention for x, y, and xy,
determine the center of the circle C, which is located
on the axis at a distance avg = (x + v)/2 from the
origin.
35

10. Strain Transformation

*10.3 MOHRS CIRCLE: PLANE STRAIN

Procedure for Analysis

Construction of the circle
Plot the reference pt A having coordinates (x, xy/2).
This pt represents the case for which the x axis
coincides with the x axis. Hence = 0.
Connect pt A with center C
of the circle and from the
shaded triangle determine
the radius R of the circle.
Sketch the circle.
36

10. Strain Transformation

*10.3 MOHRS CIRCLE: PLANE STRAIN

Procedure for Analysis

Principal strains
Principal strains 1 and 2 are
determined from the circle as
the coordinates of pts B and
D ( = 0).
Determine the orientation of the
plane on which 1 acts by
calculating 2p1, using trigonometry.
This angle is measured
counterclockwise from the radial
reference lines CA to CB.
37

10. Strain Transformation

*10.3 MOHRS CIRCLE: PLANE STRAIN

Procedure for Analysis

Principal strains
Remember that the rotation of p1,
must be in this same direction,
from the elements reference axis x to the x axis.
When 1 and 2 are indicated as being positive as
shown earlier, the element shown here will elongate
in the x and y directions as shown by the dashed
outline.

38

10. Strain Transformation

*10.3 MOHRS CIRCLE: PLANE STRAIN

Procedure for Analysis

Maximum in-plane shear strain
Average normal strain and half the
maximum in-plane shear strain
are determined from the circle
as the coordinates of pts E and F.
Orientation
of the plane on which
max
in plane and avg act can be
determined from the circle by
calculating 2s1 using trigonometry.
This angle is measured clockwise
from the radial reference lines
CA to CF.
39

10. Strain Transformation

*10.3 MOHRS CIRCLE: PLANE STRAIN

Procedure for Analysis

Maximum in-plane shear strain
Remember that the rotation of
ps1, must be in this same
direction, from the elements
reference axis x to the x axis.
Strains on arbitrary plane
Normal and shear strain components x and xy for
a plane specified at an angle , can be obtained
from the circle using trigonometry to determine the
coordinates of pt P.
40

10. Strain Transformation

*10.3 MOHRS CIRCLE: PLANE STRAIN

Procedure for Analysis

Strains on arbitrary plane
To locate P, the known angle of
the x axis is measured on the
circle as 2. This measurement is
made from the radial reference line CA to the radial
reference line CA to CP. Remember that
measurements for 2 on the circle must be in the
same direction as for the x axis.
If value of y is required, it can be determined by
calculating the coordinate of pt Q. The line CQ lies
180 away from CP and thus represents a rotation of
90 of the x axis.
41

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.4
State of plane strain at a pt represented by the
components x = 250(10-6), y = 150(10-6), and
xy = 120(10-6). Determine the principal strains
and the orientation of the element.

42

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.4 (SOLN)

Construction of the circle
The and /2 axes are
established as shown. Note
that the positive /2 axis must
be directed downward so that
counterclockwise rotations of
the element correspond to
counterclockwise rotation
around the circle, and vice
versa. Center of the circle is located on the axis at
250 150 6
avg
10 50 10 6
2

43

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.4 (SOLN)

Construction of the circle
Since xy/2 = 60(10-6), the
reference pt A ( = 0) has
coordinates [250(10-6), 60(10-6)].
From shaded triangle, radius
of circle is CA:
R

250 50 60 106 208.8106

2

44

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.4 (SOLN)

Principal strains
The coordinates of pts B and D
represent the principal strains.
They are

2 50 208.8 106 15910 6
1 50 208.8 106 259 106

The direction of the positive principal strain 1 is

defined by the counterclockwise 2p1, measured from
the radial reference lines CA to CB.

45

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.4 (SOLN)

Principal strains
We have tan 2 p1

60
250 50
p1 8.35

Hence, the side dx of the

element is oriented
counterclockwise 8.35.
This also defines the direction of 1.
The deformation of the element is also shown.

46

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.5
State of plane strain at a pt represented by the
components x = 250(10-6), y = 150(10-6), and
xy = 120(10-6). Determine the maximum in-plane
shear strains and orientation of the element.

47

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.5 (SOLN)

Maximum in-plane shear strain
Half the maximum in-plane shear strain and average
normal strain are represented by the coordinates of
pts E and F on the circle. From coordinates of pt E
x' y ' max
in - plane
208.8 10 6
2

x' y '

max
in - plane

418 10

avg 50 10 6

48

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.5 (SOLN)

Maximum in-plane shear strain
To orientate the element, determine the clockwise
angle 2s1 from the circle,
2 s1 90 2 8.35

s1 36.6
Since shear strain defined from pt E
on the circle has a positive value and
average normal strain is also positive,
corresponding positive shear stress
and positive average normal stress
deform the element into dashed
shape as shown.
49

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.6
State of plane strain at a pt represented by an
element having the components x = 300(10-6),
y = 100(10-6), and xy = 100(10-6). Determine the
state of strain on an element oriented 20 clockwise
from this reported position.

50

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.6 (SOLN)

Construction of circle
The and /2 axes are
established as shown.
Center of circle is on
the axis at

avg

300 100

6
6

10

200
10

Coordinates of reference pt A is [300(10-6), 50(10-6)].

Radius CA determined from shaded triangle,
R 300 200 2 50 2 106 111 .8 106

51

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.6 (SOLN)

Strains on inclined elements
As we orient element 20 clockwise, first establish a
radial line CP, 2(20) = 40 clockwise, measured from
CA ( = 0). Coordinates of pt P (x, xy/2) are
obtained from the geometry of the circle.
50

1
tan
26.57
300 200

6
6

200

111
.
8
cos
13
.
43

10

309
10
Thus x '
x' y '
111 .8 sin 13.43 106
2
6

x ' y ' 52.0 10

52

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.6 (SOLN)

Strains on inclined elements
Normal strain y can be determined from the
coordinate of pt Q on the circle. Why?

y ' 200 111 .8 cos13.43 10

91.310
6

As a result of these strains, the

element deforms relative to the
x, y axes as shown.

53

10. Strain Transformation

*10.4 ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM SHEAR STRAIN

Assume three principal strains

(max, int, min) cause elongations
along the x, y and z axes as shown.
Use Mohrs circle to determine
maximum in-plane shear strain for
the x-y, x-z and y-z planes.

54

10. Strain Transformation

*10.4 ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM SHEAR STRAIN

From the circles drawn,

we see that the absolute
maximum shear strain is
determined from the circle
having the larges radius.
For this condition,

abs
max

max min

10 - 14

max min

10 - 15

and

avg

55

10. Strain Transformation

*10.4 ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM SHEAR STRAIN

Plane strain
When material subjected to
principal in-plane strains of the
same sign, the largest circle has
a radius of R = (xz)max/2.

abs
max

x' z '

max

max

This value represents the

absolute maximum shear
strain for the material. It is
larger than the maximum
in-plane shear strain.
56

10. Strain Transformation

*10.4 ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM SHEAR STRAIN

Plane strain
For material subjected to
principal in-plane strains of
opposite signs,

abs
max

x ' y '

max

max min

57

10. Strain Transformation

*10.4 ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM SHEAR STRAIN

IMPORTANT
General 3-D state of strain at a pt can be
represented by an element oriented so that only
three principal strains act on it.
From this orientation, the orientation of the element
representing the absolute maximum shear strain
can be obtained by rotating the element 45 about
the axis defining the direction of int.
The absolute maximum shear strain will be larger
that the maximum in-plane shear strain whenever
the in-plane principal strains have the same sign,
the absolute maximum shear strain will act out of
the plane.
58

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.7
Plane of strain at a pt is represented by the strain
components x = 400(10-6), y = 200(10-6),
xy = 150(10-6). Determine the maximum in-plane
shear strain and the absolute maximum shear strain.

59

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.7 (SOLN)

Maximum in-plane strain
Using Mohrs circle method, center of circle is on the
-axis at
400 200 6
avg
10 100 106
2
Since xy/2 = 75(10-6), reference pt has coordinates A
[400(10-6), 75(10-6)]. Radius of circle is

400 100 75 106 309106

2

60

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.7 (SOLN)

Maximum in-plane strain
Computing in-plane principal strains,
we have

max 100 309 10 6 209 10 6

min 100 309 106 409 106

From the circle, maximum in-plane shear strain is

max
in - plane

max min 209 409 10 6 618 10 6

61

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.7 (SOLN)

Absolute maximum shear strain
From the results, we have max = 209(10-6),
int = 409(10-6). The 3 Mohrs circles plotted for
element orientations about each of the x, y and z
axes are shown. We see that the principal in-plane
strains have opposite signs, and maximum in-plane
shear strain is also the absolute
maximum shear strain

abs
in - plane

618 106

62

10. Strain Transformation

10.5 STRAIN ROSETTES

We measure the normal strain in a tension-test
specimen using an electrical-resistance strain
gauge.
For general loading on a body, the normal strains at
a pt are measured using a cluster of 3 electricalresistance strain gauges.
Such strain gauges, arranged in a specific pattern
are called strain rosettes.
Note that only the strains in the plane of the gauges
are measured by the strain rosette. That is ,the
normal strain on the surface is not measured.
63

10. Strain Transformation

10.5 STRAIN ROSETTES

Apply strain transformation
Eqn 10-2 to each gauge:

a x cos 2 a y sin 2 a xy sin a cos a

2

b x cos b y sin b xy sin b cosb

c x cos 2 c y sin 2 c xy sin c cosc

10 - 16

We determine the values of x, y xy by solving the

three equations simultaneously.

64

10. Strain Transformation

10.5 STRAIN ROSETTES

For rosettes arranged in the 45
pattern, Eqn 10-16 becomes
x a

y c
xy 2 b a c
For rosettes arranged in the 60 pattern,
Eqn 10-16 becomes
x a

1
y 2 b 2 c a
3
2
xy b c
3

10 - 17
65

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.8
State of strain at pt A on bracket is measured using
the strain rosette shown. Due to the loadings, the
readings from the gauges give a = 60(10-6),
b = 135(10-6), and c = 264(10-6). Determine the
in-plane principal strains at the pt and the directions
in which they act.

66

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.8 (SOLN)

Establish x axis as shown, measure the
angles counterclockwise from the +x axis
to center-lines of each gauge, we have
a = 0, b = 60, and c = 120
Substitute into Eqn 10-16,

60 10 6 x cos 2 0 y sin 2 0 xy sin 0 cos 0 x

(1)

135 10 6 x cos 2 60 y sin 2 60 xy sin 60 cos 60

0.25 x 0.75 y 0.433 xy

( 2)

264 10 6 x cos 2 120 y sin 2 120 xy sin 120 cos120

0.25 x 0.75 y 0.433 xy

(3)
67

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.8 (SOLN)

Solving Eqns (1), (2) and (3) simultaneously, we get
6

x 60 10

y 246 10

xy 149 10

The in-plane principal strains can also be obtained

directly from Eqn 10-17. Reference pt on Mohrs circle
is A [60(10-6), 74.5(10-6)] and center of circle, C is on
the axis at avg = 153(10-6).
From shaded triangle, radius is

153 60 2 74.5 2 106

R 119 .2 10 6

68

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.8 (SOLN)

The in-plane principal strains are thus
1 153 106 119 .2 106 272 106

2 246 106 119 .2 106 33.8 106

74.5
1
2 p 2 tan
38.7
153 60
p 2 19.3

Deformed element is shown dashed.

Due to Poisson effect, element also subjected to an
out-of-plane strain, in the z direction, although this
value does not influence the calculated results.
69

10. Strain Transformation

10.6 MATERIAL-PROPERTY RELATIONSHIPS

Generalized Hookes law

Material at a pt subjected to a state of triaxial
stress, with associated strains.
We use principle of superposition, Poissons ratio
(lat = long), and Hookes law ( = E) to relate
stresses to strains, in the uniaxial direction.
With x applied, element elongates in the x
direction and strain is this direction is
x
' x
E
70

10. Strain Transformation

10.6 MATERIAL-PROPERTY RELATIONSHIPS

Generalized Hookes law

With y applied, element contracts with a strain x
y
in the x direction,
' ' x
E
Likewise, With z applied, a contraction is caused
z
in the z direction, ' ' ' x
E

71

10. Strain Transformation

10.6 MATERIAL-PROPERTY RELATIONSHIPS

Generalized Hookes law

By using the principle of superposition,

1
x x y z
E
1
y y x z
E
1
z z x y
E

10 - 18

72

10. Strain Transformation

10.6 MATERIAL-PROPERTY RELATIONSHIPS

Generalized Hookes law

If we apply a shear stress xy to the element,
experimental observations show that it will deform
only due to shear strain xy. Similarly for xz and xy,
yz and yz. Thus, Hookes law for shear stress and
shear strain is written as
1
1
1
xy xy
yz yz
xz xz
10 - 19
G
G
G

73

10. Strain Transformation

10.6 MATERIAL-PROPERTY RELATIONSHIPS

Relationship involving E, , and G

We stated in chapter 3.7:
E
10 - 20
G
21
Relate principal strain to shear stress,
xy
1
10 - 21
max
E
Note that since x = y = z = 0, then from Eqn
10-18, x = y = 0. Substitute into transformation
xy
Eqn 10-19,
1
max
2
74

10. Strain Transformation

10.6 MATERIAL-PROPERTY RELATIONSHIPS

Relationship involving E, , and G

By Hookes law, xy = xy/G. So max = xy/2G.
Substitute into Eqn 10-21 and rearrange to obtain
Eqn 10-20.
Dilatation and Bulk Modulus
Consider a volume element subjected to principal
stresses x, y, z.
Sides of element are dx, dy and dz, and after stress
application, they become (1 + x)dx, (1 + y)dy,
(1 + z)dz, respectively.
75

10. Strain Transformation

10.6 MATERIAL-PROPERTY RELATIONSHIPS

Dilatation and Bulk Modulus

Change in volume of element is
V 1 x 1 y 1 z dx dy dz dx dy dz
Change in volume per unit volume is the
volumetric strain or dilatation e.
V
10 - 22
e
x y z
dV
Using generalized Hookes law, we write the
dilatation in terms of applied stress.
1 2

10 - 23
e
x y z
E
76

10. Strain Transformation

10.6 MATERIAL-PROPERTY RELATIONSHIPS

Dilatation and Bulk Modulus

When volume element of material is subjected to
uniform pressure p of a liquid, pressure is the same
in all directions.
As shear resistance of a liquid is zero, we can
ignore shear stresses.
Thus, an element of the body is subjected to
principal stresses x = y = z = p. Substituting into
Eqn 10-23 and rearranging,
p
E
10 - 24

e 31 2
77

10. Strain Transformation

10.6 MATERIAL-PROPERTY RELATIONSHIPS

Dilatation and Bulk Modulus

This ratio (p/e) is similar to the ratio of linear-elastic
stress to strain, thus terms on the RHS are called
the volume modulus of elasticity or the bulk
modulus. Having same units as stress with
symbol k,
E
k
10 - 25
31 2
For most metals, so k E.
From Eqn 10-25, theoretical maximum value of
Poissons ratio is therefore = 0.5.
When plastic yielding occurs, = 0.5 is used.
78

10. Strain Transformation

10.6 MATERIAL-PROPERTY RELATIONSHIPS

IMPORTANT
When homogeneous and isotropic material is
subjected to a state of triaxial stress, the strain in
one of the stress directions is influence by the
strains produced by all stresses. This is the result
of the Poisson effect, and results in the form of a
generalized Hookes law.
A shear stress applied to homogenous and
isotropic material will only produce shear strain in
the same plane.
Material constants, E, G and are related
mathematically.
79

10. Strain Transformation

10.6 MATERIAL-PROPERTY RELATIONSHIPS

IMPORTANT
Dilatation, or volumetric strain, is caused by only by
normal strain, not shear strain.
The bulk modulus is a measure of the stiffness of a
volume of material. This material property provides
an upper limit to Poissons ratio of = 0.5, which
remains at this value while plastic yielding occurs.

80

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.10
Copper bar is subjected to a uniform loading along its
edges as shown. If it has a length a = 300 mm, width
b = 50 mm, and thickness t = 20 mm before the load
is applied, determine its new length, width, and
thickness after application of the load.
Take Ecu = 120 GPa, cu = 0.34.

81

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.10 (SOLN)

By inspection, bar is subjected to a state of plane
stress. From loading, we have
x 800 MPa
y 500 MPa
xy 0 z 0
Associated strains are determined from generalized
Hookes law, Eqn 10-18;
x
x
v z
E E
800 MPa
0.34
500 MPa 0.00808

120103 MPa 120103

82

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.10 (SOLN)

Associated strains are determined from generalized
Hookes law, Eqn 10-18;
y
y
x z
E E
500 MPa
0.34
800 MPa 0.00643

120103 MPa 120103

z
z
x y
E E
0.34
800 MPa 500 MPa 0.00850
0
120103
83

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.10 (SOLN)

The new bar length, width, and thickness are
a ' 300 mm 0.00808 300 mm 302.4 mm

b' 50 mm 0.00643 50 mm 49.68 mm

t ' 20 mm 0.000850 20 mm 19.98 mm

84

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.11
If rectangular block shown is subjected to a uniform
pressure of p = 20 kPa, determine the dilatation and
change in length of each side.
Take E = 600 kPa, = 0.45.

85

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.11 (SOLN)

Dilatation
The dilatation can be determined using Eqn 10-23
with x = y = z = 20 kPa. We have

1 2

e
x y z
E
1 2 0.45
3 20 kPa

600 kPa
0.01 cm3 / cm3

86

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.11 (SOLN)

Change in length
Normal strain on each side can be determined from
Hookes law, Eqn 10-18;
1
x y z
E
1
20 kPa 0.45 20 kPa 20 kPa

600 kPa
0.00333 cm/cm

87

10. Strain Transformation

EXAMPLE 10.11 (SOLN)

Change in length
Thus, the change in length of each side is

a 0.00333 4 cm 0.0133 cm
b 0.00333 2 cm 0.00667 cm
c 0.00333 3 cm 0.0100 cm
The negative signs indicate that each dimension is
decreased.

88

10. Strain Transformation

*10.7 THEORIES OF FAILURE

When engineers design for a material, there is a

need to set an upper limit on the state of stress that
defines the materials failure.
For ductile material, failure is initiated by yielding.
For brittle material, failure is specified by fracture.
However, criteria for the above failure modes is not
easy to define under a biaxial or triaxial stress.
Thus, four theories are introduced to obtain the
principal stresses at critical states of stress.

89

10. Strain Transformation

*10.7 THEORIES OF FAILURE

A. Ductile materials
1. Maximum-Shear-Stress Theory
Most common cause of yielding of
ductile material (e.g., steel) is slipping.
Slipping occurs along the contact
planes of randomly-ordered crystals
that make up the material.
Edges of planes of slipping as they appear on the
surface of the strip are referred to as Lders lines.
The lines indicate the slip planes in the strip, which
occur at approximately 45 with the axis of the strip.
90

10. Strain Transformation

*10.7 THEORIES OF FAILURE

A. Ductile materials
1. Maximum-Shear-Stress Theory
The lines indicate the slip planes in
the strip, which occur at approximately
45 with the axis of the strip.
Consider an element, determine maximum shear
stress from Mohrs circle,
Y
10 - 26
max
2
Thus, in 1868, Henri Tresca
proposed the maximum-shear-stress
theory or Tresca yield criterion.
91

10. Strain Transformation

*10.7 THEORIES OF FAILURE

A. Ductile materials
1. Maximum-Shear-Stress Theory
If the two in-plane principal
stresses have the same sign,
failure will occur out of the plane:
max
abs
2
max
If in-plane principal stresses are of opposite signs,
failure occurs in the plane:
max min
abs
2
max
92

10. Strain Transformation

*10.7 THEORIES OF FAILURE

A. Ductile materials
1. Maximum-Shear-Stress Theory
Thus, we express the maximum-shear-stress theory
for plane stress for any two in-plane principal
stresses for 1 and 2 by the following criteria:
1 Y

} 1, 2 have same signs.

2 Y

} 1, 2 have same signs.

1 2 Y

} 1, 2 have opposite signs.

10 - 27

93

10. Strain Transformation

*10.7 THEORIES OF FAILURE

A. Ductile materials
1. Maximum-Shear-Stress Theory

94

10. Strain Transformation

*10.7 THEORIES OF FAILURE

A. Ductile materials
2. Maximum-Distortion-Energy Theory
Energy per unit volume of material is called the
strain-energy density.
Material subjected to a uniaxial stress , the
strain-energy density is written as
1
10 - 28
u
2

1
1
1
u 11 2 2 3 3
2
2
2
95

10. Strain Transformation

*10.7 THEORIES OF FAILURE

A. Ductile materials
2. Maximum-Distortion-Energy Theory
For linear-elastic behavior, applying Hookes law into
above eqn:

1 12 2 2 32
u

2E
2 1 2 1 3 3 2

10 - 29

Maximum-distortion-energy theory is defined as the

yielding of a ductile material occurs when the
distortion energy per unit volume of the material
equals or exceeds the distortion energy per unit
volume of the same material when subjected to
yielding in a simple tension test.
96

10. Strain Transformation

*10.7 THEORIES OF FAILURE

A. Ductile materials
2. Maximum-Distortion-Energy Theory
To obtain distortion energy per unit volume,
1
ud
1 2 2 2 3 2 3 1 2
6E

In the case of plane stress,

1 2
ud
1 1 2 22
3E

For uniaxial tension test, 1 = Y, 2 = 3 = 0

1 2
ud Y
Y
3E
97

10. Strain Transformation

*10.7 THEORIES OF FAILURE

A. Ductile materials
2. Maximum-Distortion-Energy Theory
Since maximum-distortion energy theory requires
ud = (ud)Y, then for the case of plane or biaxial
stress, we have

12 1 2 2 2 Y 2

10 - 30

98

10. Strain Transformation

*10.7 THEORIES OF FAILURE

A. Ductile materials
2. Maximum-Distortion-Energy Theory
Comparing both theories, we get the following
graph.

99

10. Strain Transformation

*10.7 THEORIES OF FAILURE

A. Brittle materials
3. Maximum-Normal-Stress Theory
Figure shows how brittle materials
fail.

100

10. Strain Transformation

*10.7 THEORIES OF FAILURE

A. Brittle materials
3. Maximum-Normal-Stress Theory
The maximum-normal-stress theory
states that a brittle material will fail
when the maximum principal stress
1 in the material reaches a limiting value that is
equal to the ultimate normal stress the material can
sustain when subjected to simple tension.
For the material subjected to plane stress
1 ult

2 ult

10 - 31

101

10. Strain Transformation

*10.7 THEORIES OF FAILURE

A. Brittle materials
3. Maximum-Normal-Stress Theory
Experimentally, it was found to be in close
agreement with the behavior of brittle materials that
have stress-strain diagrams similar in both tension
and compression.

102

10. Strain Transformation

*10.7 THEORIES OF FAILURE

A. Brittle materials
4. Mohrs Failure Criterion
Use for brittle materials where the tension and
compression properties are different.
Three tests need to be performed on material to
determine the criterion.

103

10. Strain Transformation

*10.7 THEORIES OF FAILURE

A. Brittle materials
4. Mohrs Failure Criterion
Carry out a uniaxial tensile test to determine the
ultimate tensile stress (ult)t
Carry out a uniaxial compressive test to determine
the ultimate compressive stress (ult)c
Carry out a torsion test to determine the ultimate
shear stress ult.
Results are plotted in Mohr circles.

104

10. Strain Transformation

*10.7 THEORIES OF FAILURE

A. Brittle materials
4. Mohrs Failure Criterion
Circle A represents the stress condition 1 = 2 = 0,
3 = (ult)c
Circle B represents the stress condition 1 = (ult)t,
2 = 3 = 0
Circle C represents the
pure-shear-stress condition
caused by ult.

105

10. Strain Transformation

*10.7 THEORIES OF FAILURE

A. Brittle materials
4. Mohrs Failure Criterion
The Criterion can also be represented on a graph
of principal stresses 1 and 2 (3 = 0).

106

10. Strain Transformation

*10.7 THEORIES OF FAILURE

IMPORTANT
If material is ductile, failure is specified by the
initiation of yielding, whereas if it is brittle, it is
specified by fracture.
Ductile failure can be defined when slipping occurs
between the crystals that compose the material.
This slipping is due to shear stress and the
maximum-shear-stress theory is based on this
idea.
Strain energy is stored in a material when
subjected to normal stress.
107

10. Strain Transformation

*10.7 THEORIES OF FAILURE

IMPORTANT
The maximum-distortion-energy theory depends on
the strain energy that distorts the material, and not
the part that increases its volume.
The fracture of a brittle material is caused by the
maximum tensile stress in the material, and not the
compressive stress.
This is the basis of the maximum-normal-stress
theory, and it is applicable if the stress-strain
diagram is similar in tension and compression.

108

10. Strain Transformation

*10.7 THEORIES OF FAILURE

IMPORTANT
If a brittle material has a stress-strain diagram that
is different in tension and compression, then
Mohrs failure criterion may be used to predict
failure.
Due to material imperfections, tensile fracture of a
brittle material is difficult to predict, and so theories
of failure for brittle materials should be used with
caution.

109

10. Strain Transformation

*EXAMPLE 10.12
Steel pipe has inner diameter of 60 mm and outer
diameter of 80 mm. If it is subjected to a torsional
moment of 8 kNm and a bending moment of
3.5 kNm, determine if these loadings cause failure as
defined by the maximum-distortion-energy theory.
Yield stress for the steel found from a tension test is
Y = 250 MPa.

110

10. Strain Transformation

*EXAMPLE 10.12 (SOLN)

Investigate a pt on pipe that is subjected to a state of
maximum critical stress.
Torsional and bending moments are uniform
throughout the pipes length.
At arbitrary section a-a, loadings produce the stress
distributions shown.

111

10. Strain Transformation

*EXAMPLE 10.12 (SOLN)

By inspection, pts A and B subjected to same state of
critical stress. Stress at A,
8000 N m 0.04 m
Tc
A
116 .4 MPa
4
4
J 2 0.04 m 0.03 m
3500 N m 0.04 m
Mc
A

101.9 MPa
4
4
I
4 0.04 m 0.03 m

112

10. Strain Transformation

*EXAMPLE 10.12 (SOLN)

Mohrs circle for this state of stress has center located
at
0 101.9
avg
50.9 MPa
2
The radius is calculated from the
shaded triangle to be R = 127.1
and the in-plane principal
stresses are
1 50.9 127.1 76.2 MPa

2 50.9 127.1 178.0 MPa

113

10. Strain Transformation

*EXAMPLE 10.12 (SOLN)

Using Eqn 10-30, we have

12 1 2 22 Y 2

Is 76.2 2 76.2 178.0 178.0 2 Y 2 ?

51,100 62, 500 OK!

Since criterion is met, material within the pipe will not

yield (fail) according to the maximum-distortionenergy theory.

114

10. Strain Transformation

*EXAMPLE 10.14
Solid shaft has a radius of 0.5 cm and made of steel
having yield stress of Y = 360 MPa. Determine if the
loadings cause the shaft to fail according to the
maximum-shear-stress theory and the maximumdistortion-energy theory.

115

10. Strain Transformation

*EXAMPLE 10.14 (SOLN)

State of stress in shaft caused by axial force and
torque. Since maximum shear stress caused by
torque occurs in material at outer surface, we have

P
15 kN
2
x

19
.
10
kN/cm
191 MPa
2
A 0.5 cm

xy

Tc 3.25 kN cm 0.5 cm

4
J
2 0.5 cm

xy 16.55 kN/cm 2 165.5 MPa

116

10. Strain Transformation

*EXAMPLE 10.14 (SOLN)

Stress components acting on an element of material
at pt A. Rather than use Mohrs circle, principal
stresses are obtained using stress-transformation
2
eqns 9-5:
x y
x y
xy 2
1, 2

2
2

191 0
191 0

2
2

95.5 191.1
1 95.6 MPa

165.5 2

2 286.6 MPa
117

10. Strain Transformation

*EXAMPLE 10.14 (SOLN)

Maximum-shear-stress theory
Since principal stresses have opposite signs,
absolute maximum shear stress occur in the plane,
apply Eqn 10-27,
1 2 Y
Is 95.6 286.6 360 ?
382.2 360 Fail!
Thus, shear failure occurs by maximum-shear-stress
theory.

118

10. Strain Transformation

*EXAMPLE 10.14 (SOLN)

Maximum-distortion-energy theory
Applying Eqn 10-30, we have

12 12 22 Y

Is 95.6 95.6 286.6 286.6 360 ?

2

118,677.9 129,600 OK!

However, using the maximum-distortion-energy

theory, failure will not occur. Why?

119

10. Strain Transformation

CHAPTER REVIEW
When element of material is subjected to
deformations that only occur in a single plane, then
it undergoes plain strain.
If the strain components x, y, and xy are known for
a specified orientation of the element, then the
strains acting for some other orientation of the
element can be determined using the plane-strain
transformation equations.
Likewise, principal normal strains and maximum
in-plane shear strain can be determined using
transformation equations.
120

10. Strain Transformation

CHAPTER REVIEW
Strain transformation problems can be solved
in a semi-graphical manner using Mohrs circle.
Establish the and /2 axes, then compute
center of circle [(x + y)/2, 0] and controlling pt
[, /2], before plotting the circle.
Radius of circle extends between these two pts
and is determined from trigonometry.
Absolute maximum shear strain equals the
maximum in-plane shear strain provided the
in-plane principal strains are of opposite signs.

121

10. Strain Transformation

CHAPTER REVIEW
If the in-plane principal strains are of same signs,
then absolute maximum shear strain will occur out
of plane and is determined from max = max/2.
Hookes law can be expressed in 3 dimensions,
where each strain is related to the 3 normal stress
components using the material properties E, and ,
as seen in Eqns 10-18.
If E and are known, then G can be determined
using G = E/[2(1 + ].
Dilatation is a measure of volumetric strain, and the
bulk modulus is used to measure the stiffness of a
volume of material.
122

10. Strain Transformation

CHAPTER REVIEW
Provided the principal stresses for a material
are known, then a theory of failure can be used
as a basis for design.
Ductile materials fail in shear, and here the
maximum-shear-stress theory or the maximumdistortion-energy theory can be used to predict
failure.
Both theories make comparison to the yield
stress of a specimen subjected to uniaxial
stress.

123

10. Strain Transformation

CHAPTER REVIEW
Brittle materials fail in tension, and so the
maximum-normal-stress theory or Mohrs
failure criterion can be used to predict failure.
Comparisons are made with the ultimate tensile
stress developed in a specimen.

124