Chapter 11

An Introduction to Graph
Theory

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.1 Definitions and Examples
Undirected graph

Directed graph

loop
G=(V,E)
isolated vertex
multiple
edges
adjacent
simple graph: an undirected graph without loop or multiple edges
degree of a vertex: number of edges connected
(indegree, outdegree)
For simple graphs, deg(v i ) 2 | E |
vi V

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.1 Definitions and Examples
a
x
y
path: no vertex can be repeated
a-b-c-d-e
trail: no edge can be repeat
a-b-c-d-e-b-d
walk: no restriction
a-b-d-a-b-c

d
c
length: number of edges in
this (path,trail,walk)

closed if x=y
closed trail: circuit (a-b-c-d-b-e-d-a,
one draw without lifting pen)
closed path: cycle (a-b-c-d-a)

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.1 Definitions and Examples
Theorem 1.1 Let G = (V , E ) be an undirected graph, with
a , b V , a b . If there exists a trail from a to b , then there is
a path from a to b .
remove any cycle on the repeated
vertices
a
x
b

Def 11.4 Let G=(V,E) be an undirected graph. We call G connected

if there is a path between any two distinct vertices of G.
b

d
c

e
disconnected with
two components
d
c

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.1 Definitions and Examples
Def. 11.5 For any graph G = (V , E ), the number of components
of G is denoted by ( G ).
1 ( G) |V |
Can you think of an algorithm to determine ( G )?

Def. 11.6
multigraphs

multigraph of multiplicity 3

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.2 Subgraphs, Complements, and Graph Isomorphism
Def. 11.7 If G = (V , E ) is a graph, then G1 (V1 , E1 ) is called
a subgraph of G if V1 V and E1 E , where each edge of
in E1 is incident with vertices in V1 .

a
e

b
d
c

d
d
c
spanning subgraph
V1=V

c
induced subgraph
include all edges
of E in V1

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.2 Subgraphs, Complements, and Graph Isomorphism
a
Def. 11.11 complete graph: Kn

b
Def. 11.12 complement of a graph
a
G
G
e

a
e

d
c

K5

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.2 Subgraphs, Complements, and Graph Isomorphism
Theorem: Any graph of six vertices contains a K3 or K3.
(In a party of six, There exists 3 people who are either
mutually acquainted or mutually inacquainted.)
5 is not enough.
a

For 6 people, let's look from the point of

view of a:
e

From the pigeonhole principle, there are

3 who know a or 3 who does not know a.
a

d
c

b c d
K3 or K3.

a
b c d
K3 or K3.

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.2 Subgraphs, Complements, and Graph Isomorphism
Ex. 11.7 Instant Insanity, 4 cubes, each of the six faces on a
cube is painted with one of the colors, red (R), white (W),
blue (B), or Yellow (Y). The object is to place the cubes in a
column of four such that all four colors appear on each of the
four sides of the column.
Y
R
R
W
W R Y W B B W Y
R B Y B
W R B Y
B (1)
Y (2)
W (3)
W (4)
There are (3)(24)(24)(24)=41472 possibilities to consider.
the bottom cube

6 faces with 4 rotations

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.2 Subgraphs, Complements, and Graph Isomorphism
Y
W R Y W
B (1)
R

1
3

3 2 1 4
1

4
Y

R
B B W Y
Y (2)
4
2

W
W R B Y
W (4)

Consider the subgraph of opposite column.

R 3
W
R 1
W
4

B 3

2
Each edge corresponds
to a pair of opposite faces.

R
R B Y B
W (3)

2
Y 1

(1)

B
R Y

4
Y 2

Y
W

(2)

B
W

B R
W

(3)

R
YB

(4)

W
Y

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.2 Subgraphs, Complements, and Graph Isomorphism
Graph Isomorphism
1

b
c
w

3
4
d
Def. 11.13 Let G1 (V1 , E1 ) and G 2 (V 2 , E 2 ) be two
undirected graphs. A function f : V1 V 2 is called a graph
isomorphism if (a) f is one - to - one and onto and (b) for
all a , b V1 , ( a , b ) E1 if and only if ( f ( a ), f ( b )) E 2 .
When such a function exists, G1 and G 2 are called
isomorphic graohs.

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.2 Subgraphs, Complements, and Graph Isomorphism
q
r
a
Ex. 11.8
v

w
y z

j
i

f
g

c
t
d
u
a-q c-u e-r g-x i-z b-v d-y f-w h-t j-s, isomorphic
Ex. 11.9
degree 2
vertices=3
degree 2 vertices=2
Can you think of an algorithm for testing isomorphism?

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.3 Vertex Degree: Euler Trails and Circuits
degree 1 vertex: pendant vertex
Theorem 11.2

For simple graphs, deg(v i ) 2 | E |

vi V

Corollary 11.1 The number of vertices of odd degree must be even.

Ex. 11.11 a regular graph: each vertex has the same degree
Is it possible to have a 4-regular graph with 10 edges?
2|E|=4|V|=20, |V|=5

possible (K5)

with 15 edges?
2|E|=4|V|=30

not possible

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.3 Vertex Degree: Euler Trails and Circuits
Ex. 11.12 The Seven Bridge of Konigsberg
area a
area b

area d

area c

a
b

d
c

Find a way to walk about the city so as to cross

each bridge exactly once and then return to the
starting point.

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.3 Vertex Degree: Euler Trails and Circuits
Def. 11.15 Let G=(V,E) be an undirected graph or multigraph
with no isolated vertices. Then G is said to have an Euler circuit
if there is a circuit in G that traverses every edge of the graph
exactly once. If there is an open trail from a to b in G and this
trail traverses each edge in G exactly once, the trail is called an
Euler trail.
Theorem 11.3 Let G=(V,E) be an undirected graph or multigraph
with no isolated vertices. Then G has an Euler circuit if and only
if G is connected and every vertex in G has even degree.
a
b

d
c

All degrees are odd. Hence no Euler circuit

for the Konigsberg bridges problem.

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.3 Vertex Degree: Euler Trails and Circuits
proof of Euler circuit theorem:
Euler circult

connected and even degree

obvious

v
connected and even degree
Euler circuit
by induction on the number of edges.
e=1 or 2

for starting vertex

for other vertices

e=n find any circuit containing s

s

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.3 Vertex Degree: Euler Trails and Circuits
Can you think of an algorithm to construct an Euler circuit?
Corollary 11.2 An Euler trail exists in G if and only if G is
connected and has exactly two vertices of odd degree.
two odd degree vertices
a

add an edge

Theorem 11.4 A directed Euler circuit exists in G if and only if

G is connected and in-degree(v)=out-degree(v) for all vertices v.

one in, one out

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.3 Vertex Degree: Euler Trails and Circuits
Ex. 11.13 Complete Cycles (DeBruijn Sequences)
If n is a positive integer and N=2n, a cycle of length N of 0's and 1's
is called a complete cycle if all possible subsequences of 0's and 1's of
length n appear in this cycle.
n=1
01,
n=2
0011,
For n=3: a
n=3
00010111,00011101
n=4
16 complete cycles
00
2 n 1 n
In general
2
b
h
f
vertex set={00,01,10,11}
a directed edge from x1x2 to x2 x3
01
10
Find an Euler circuit:
c g
e
abcdefgh
00111010
abgfcdeh
00101110
11 d

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.4 Planar Graphs
Def. 11.17 A graph (or multigraph) G is called planar if G can be
drawn in the plane with its edges intersecting only at vertices of G.
Such a drawing of G is called an embedding of G in the plane.
Ex. 11.14,11.15 K1,K2,K3,K4 are planar, Kn for n>4 are nonplanar.

K4

K5

applications: VLSI routing, plumbing,...

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.4 Planar Graphs
Def. 11.18 bipartite graph and complete bipartite graphs (Km,n)
K4,4
K3,3 is not planar.

Therefore, any graph containing K5

or K4,4 is nonplanar.

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.4 Planar Graphs
Def. 11.19 elementary subdivision (homeomorphic operation)
u

w
u
v
w
G1 and G2 are called homeomorphic if they are isomorphic
or if they can both be obtained from the same loop-free
undirected graph H by a sequence of elementary subdivisions.
a
b a
b a
b a
e

b
d

Two homeomorphic graphs are simultaneously planar or nonplanar.

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.4 Planar Graphs
Theorem 11.5 (Kuratowski's Theorem) A graph is planar if
and only if it contains a subgraph that is homeomorphic to
either K5 or K3,3.
Ex. 11.17 Petersen graph

a subgraph homeomorphic to K3,3

a
a
j
d
j f
b
c
i
g
i
b
e
f
h
h
c
d
g
Petersen graph is nonplanar.

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.4 Planar Graphs

K4

R1
R2
R3

R4

A planar graph divides the plane

into several regions (faces), one
of them is the infinite region.
v=4,e=6,r=4, v-e+r=2

Theorem 11.6 (Euler's planar graph theorem)

For a connected planar graph or multigraph:
v-e+r=2
number
of vertices

number
of edges

number
of regions

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.4 Planar Graphs
proof: The proof is by induction on e.
e=0 or 1
v-e+r=2

v=1
r=1
e=0

v=1
r=2
e=1

v=2
r=1
e=1

Assume that the result is true for any connected planar graph or
multigraph with e edges, where 0 e k
Now for G=(V,E) with |E|=k+1 edges, let H=G-(a,b) for a,b in V.
Since H has k edges, v H e H rH 2
And, v G v H , e G e H 1.
Now consider the situation about regions.

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.4 Planar Graphs

case 1: H is connected
b
b
a(=b)

a(=b)

v G e G rG v H ( e H 1) ( rH 1) v H e H rH 2

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.4 Planar Graphs
case 2: H is disconnected
a

a H1

b H2

b H2
H1 a
b
v H1 v H2 v G , e H1 e H2 e G 1, rH1 rH2 rG 1.
And by the induction hypothesis, v H1 e H1 rH1 2 ,
v H2 e H2 rH2 2 . Therefore, v G e G rG ( v H1 v H2 )
( e H1 e H2 1) ( rH1 rH2 1) ( v H1 e H1 rH1 )
( v H2 e H2 rH2 ) 2 2 2 2 2
a

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.4 Planar Graphs
degree of a region (deg(R)): the number of edges traversed in
a shortest closed walk about the boundary of R.
two different embeddings R
6
a
b
R8
R2
R4
R5
c
R3
R7
R1
g
h
d
f
deg(R5)=4,deg(R6)=3
deg(R1)=5,deg(R2)=3
deg(R7)=5,deg(R8)=6
deg(R3)=3,deg(R4)=7
abghgfda
4

i 1

i 5

deg( Ri ) 18 deg( Ri ) 2 9 2 | E |

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.4 Planar Graphs
Corollary 11.3 Let G = (V , E ) be a loop - free connected planar
graph with | V | = v, | E | = e > 2, and r regions. Then 3r 2 e and
e 3v - 6.
Proof: Since G is a loop - free and is not a multigraph, the
boundary of each region (including the infinite region) contains
at least three edges. Hence, each region has degree 3.
Consequently, 2 e = 2 | E | = the sum of the degrees of the r
regions determined by G and 2 e 3r . From Euler' s theorem,
2e
e
2 = v - e + r v - e + v , so 6 3v - e, or e 3v - 6.
3
3

Only a necessary condition, not sufficient.

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.4 Planar Graphs
Ex. 11.18 For K5, e=10,v=5, 3v-6=9<10=e. Therefore,
by Corollary 11.3, K5 is nonplanar.
Ex. 11.19 For K3,3, each region has at least 4 edges, hence
4r 2e. If K3,3 is planar, r=e-v+2=9-6+2=5. So 20=4r 2e=18,
a contradiction.

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.4 Planar Graphs
A dual graph of a planar graph
1

a
2
5

e
g

c
4

4
6

An edge in G corresponds with an edge in Gd.

It is possible to have isomorphic graphs with respective duals that

are not isomorphic.

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.4 Planar Graphs
Def. 11.20 cut-set: a subset of edges whose removal increase
the number of components
Ex. 11.21
b

e
d

a
c

a bridge

cut-sets: {(a,b),(a,c)},
{(b,d),(c,d)},{(d,f)},...
h

For planar graphs, cycles in one graph correspond to cut-sets

in a dual graphs and vice versa.

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.5 Hamilton Paths and Cycles
a path or cycle that contain every vertex
Unlike Euler circuit, there is no known
necessary and sufficient condition for a
graph to be Hamiltonian.
an NP-complete problem
Ex. 11.24
a

c
f
i

There is a Hamilton path, but no

Hamilton cycle.

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.5 Hamilton Paths and Cycles
Ex. 11.25
y

start labeling from here

x
x

y
y

4x's and 6y's, since x and y must

interleave in a Hamilton path (or cycle),
the graph is not Hamiltonian

x
y

The method works only for bipartite graphs.

The Hamilton path problem is still NP-complete when restricted
to bipartite graphs.

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.5 Hamilton Paths and Cycles
Ex. 11.26 17 students sit at a circular table, how many sittings are
there such that one has two different neighbors each time?

3
2

Consider K17, a Hamilton cycle in K17 corresponds to a seating

arrangements. Each cycle has 17 edges, so we can have
(1/17)17(17-1)/2=8 different sittings.
5
5
5
3
15
3
15
15
1

4
6
1,2,3,4,5,6,...,17,1

17 2
16

1
4

17
16

1
4

17
16

14
6
6
1,3,5,2,7,4,...,17,14,16,1 1,5,7,3,9,2,...,16,12,14,1

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.5 Hamilton Paths and Cycles
Theorem 11.7 Let Kn* be a complete directed graph, i.e. , Kn*
has n vertices and for any distinct pair x , y of vertices, exactly
one of the edges ( x , y ) or ( y , x ) is in Kn* . Such a graph (called a
tournament ) always contains a directed Hamilton path.
Proof: Let m 2 with pm a path containing m -1 edges
( v1 , v 2 ), ( v 2 , v 3 ), , (v m1 , v m ). If m = n, we' re finished. If
not, let v be a vertex that doesn' t appear in pm .
case 1.

v1

v2

...vm

case 2.

v1

v2

...vk

case 3.

v1

v2

...vm

vk+1

...vm

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.5 Hamilton Paths and Cycles
Ex. 11.27 In a round-robin tournament each player plays every
other player exactly once. We want to somehow rank the players
according to the result of the tournament.
not always possible to have a ranking where a player in a certain
position has beaten all of the opponents in later positions
a

but by Theorem 11.7, it is possible to list the players such that

each has beaten the next player on the list

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.5 Hamilton Paths and Cycles
Theorem 11.8 Let G = (V , E ) be a loop - free graph with
|V |= n 2. If deg( x ) + deg( y ) n -1 for all x , y V , x y , then
G has a Hamilton path.

Proof: First prove that G is connected. If not,

x

y
n1 vertices

n2 vertices

deg( x ) deg( y ) ( n1 1) ( n2 1) n1 n2 2 n1 n2 1

a contradiction

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.5 Hamilton Paths and Cycles
Theorem 11.8 Let G = (V , E ) be a loop - free graph with
|V |= n 2. If deg( x ) + deg( y ) n -1 for all x , y V , x y , then
G has a Hamilton path.

Assume a path pm with m vertices

case 1. either v

v1 or vm

v1

v2

v2

v3 ...vt-1

...

vm

case 2. v1,v2,...,vm construct a cycle either v

1
or v1

v3

vt

...

v2

v3

...

vm

otherwise assume deg(v1)=k, then deg(vm)<m-k.

deg(v1)+deg(vm)<m<n-1, a contradiction
Therefore, v can be added to the cycle.

vm

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.5 Hamilton Paths and Cycles
n -1
Corollary 11.4. If deg( v )
for all vertices, then the graph
2
has a Hamilton path.
Theorem 11.9 Let G = (V , E ) be a loop - free undirected graph
with |V |= n 3. If deg( x ) + deg(y ) n for all nonadjacent
x , y V , then G contains contains a Hamilton cycle.

Proof: Assume G does not contain a Hamilton cycle. We add edges

to G until we arrive a subgraph H of Kn where H has no Hamilton
cycle, but for any edge e not in H, H+e has a Hamilton cycle.
For vertices a,b wher (a,b) is not an edge of H. H+(a,b) has a
Hamilton cycle and (a,b) is part of it.

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.5 Hamilton Paths and Cycles
a(=v1)

b(=v2)

v3

...

vn

If (b,vi) is in H, then (a,vi-1) cannot be in H. Otherwise,

b
vi
vn
a
vi-1 vi-2 v3 is a Hamilton cycle in H.
Consequently, deg H ( a ) deg H (b) n, which means
deg G ( a ) deg G (b) n, a contradiction.
Corollary 11.5 If deg( v )
Hamilton cycle.

n
for all vertices, then the graph has a
2

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.5 Hamilton Paths and Cycles
Corollary 11.6 If G = (V , E ) is a loop - free unirected graph with
n - 1
|V |= n 3, and if | E |
2, then G has a Hamilton cycle.
2
Proof: Let a ,b V where ( a ,b) E . Remove all edges connected
either to a or b and then a , b. Let H = (V ' , E ' ) denote the resulting
subgraph. Then | E |=| E ' |+ deg( a ) + deg(b). Since |V ' |= n - 2,
n - 2
n - 1
| E ' |
. Consequently,
2 | E | | E ' |+ deg( a ) + deg(b)
2
2
n - 2

+ deg(a ) + deg(b). Therefore, deg( a ) + deg(b)

2
n - 1
n - 2

2
n and G has a Hamilton cycle.
2
2

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.5 Hamilton Paths and Cycles
A related problem: the traveling salesman problem
a 3
Find a Hamilton cycle of shortest total distance.
e
1
b 3
2 4
For example, a-b-e-c-d-a with total cost=
3
1+3+4+2+2=12.
d
5
4
c 2
graph problem vs. Euclidean plane problem
(computational geometry)
Certain geometry properties (for example, the triangle
inequality) sometimes (but not always) make it simpler.

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.5 Hamilton Paths and Cycles
Two famous computational geometry problems.
1. closest pair problem: which two points are nearest
2. convex hull problem

the convex hull

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.6 Graph Coloring and Chromatic Polynomials
Def. 11.22 If G=(V,E) is an undirected graph, a proper coloring
of G occurs when we color the vertices of G so that if (a,b) is an
edge in G, then a and b are colored with different colors. The
minimum number of colors needed to properly color G is called
the chromatic number of G and is written (G).
a
3 colors are needed.
e a: Red
(Kn)=n
b
b: Green
(bipartite graph)=2
c: Red
d: Blue
d e: Red
c
In general, it's a very difficult problem (NP-complete).

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.6 Graph Coloring and Chromatic Polynomials
A related problem: color the map where two regions are
colored with different colors if they have same boundaries.
a

b
B
c

Y
d
R

G
Re
B
f

Four colors are enough for any map. Remain

a mystery for a century. Proved with the aid
of computer analysis in 1976.
f

a
b

c
d

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.6 Graph Coloring and Chromatic Polynomials
P(G,): the chromatic polynomial of G=the number of ways
to color G with colors.
Ex. 11.31 (a) G=n isolated points, P(G,)=n.
(b) G=Kn, P(G,)=(-1)(-2)...(-n+1)=(n)
(c) G=a path of n vertices, P(G,)=(-1)n-1.
(d) If G is made up of components G1, G2, ..., Gk,
then P(G,)=P(G1,)P(G2,)...P(Gk,).
Ex. 11.32

e
G

coalescing the vertices

Ge

G'e

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.6 Graph Coloring and Chromatic Polynomials
Theorem 11.10 Decomposition Theorem for Chromatic Polynomials.
If G=(V,E) is a connected graph and e is an edge, then
P(Ge,)=P(G,)+P(G'e,).
a
e
coalescing the vertices
b
G
Ge
G'e
In a proper coloring of Ge:
case 1. a and b have the same color: a proper coloring of G'e
case 2. a and b have different colors: a proper coloring of G.
Hence, P(Ge,)=P(G,)+P(G'e,).

Chapter 11 An Introduction to Graph Theory

11.6 Graph Coloring and Chromatic Polynomials
Ex. 11.33
e

P(G'e,)
P(G,)
P(Ge,)
P(G,)=(-1)3-(-1)(-2)=4-43+62-3
Since P(G,1)=0 while P(G,2)=2>0, we know that (G)=2.
Ex. 11.34

e
=

P(G,)=(4)-2(4)= (-1)(-2)2(-3)

-2
(G)=4