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MEC 100 CHAPTER 4 (Engineering Estimation & Approximation)

This document discusses engineering estimations and approximations. It begins by introducing how engineers are problem solvers who design to satisfy needs and improve living standards. It then covers topics like significant digits, accuracy vs precision, types of errors, and making approximations. Engineers must be able to estimate solutions before investing significant time and funds to increase accuracy. They must also understand concepts like systematic vs random errors and how to compute and report errors. Being able to work with measurements, significant figures, and error analysis is important for engineering work.

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116 views

MEC 100 CHAPTER 4 (Engineering Estimation & Approximation)

This document discusses engineering estimations and approximations. It begins by introducing how engineers are problem solvers who design to satisfy needs and improve living standards. It then covers topics like significant digits, accuracy vs precision, types of errors, and making approximations. Engineers must be able to estimate solutions before investing significant time and funds to increase accuracy. They must also understand concepts like systematic vs random errors and how to compute and report errors. Being able to work with measurements, significant figures, and error analysis is important for engineering work.

Uploaded by

HaFiy HaZim
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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CHAPTER 4

Engineering
Estimations and
Approximations

4.1

Introduction

Engineers are problem solvers


Engineers design to satisfy a need
and improve the living standard
Lord Kelvin stated that knowledge
and understanding are not of high
quality unless the information can be
expressed in numbers

Introduction; cont
Example; water is hot
Hot for bath?
Hot for drinking?
Too hot, not very hot, etc?

Engineers make measurements of a vast


array of physical quantities pertaining to
product or system and environment. Skill
in making and interpreting measurements is
an essential element

Learning Objectives
Learn the differences in:
Accuracy/precision,
Random/systematic error,
Uncertainty/error

Compute true, fractional, and percent error


Use proper number of significant figures to
report work

4.2 Numbers and Significant


Digits

Integer and Real Values

Real (exact or approximate) numbers


represent continuous quantities, e.g., length
of rod, mass of rock, velocity of a vehicle, etc.
L

Integer (exact) numbers represent discrete


quantities, e.g., number of marbles, number
of people, number of computers, etc.

Significant Digits

Significant digit or Significant figures is defined


as any digit used in writing a number, except
those zeros that are used only for location of
the decimal point or those zeros that do not
have any nonzero digit on their left.
Significant figures are extremely important
when reporting a numerical value.
The number of significant figures used
indicates the confidence (certainty) of that
value.

Significant Digits

How many?
Number known to:

Number of sig. figures

1 part per 10

1 part per 100

1 part per 1000

1 part per 10000

etc.

etc.

Significant Digits

A significant figure is an accurate digit


although the last digit is accepted to have
some error.
If length = 7.58 cm
Slight error
exact
exact

The number of significant figures does


not include zeros required to place
decimal points.

Significant Digits

Significant digits allow us to systematically


express a degree of confidence in a number.
A significant digit or figure is any digit used in a
number except:

Zeros that are used to locate the decimal point, such


as:
0.05

0.0003

0.002300

Zeros that do not have any nonzero digits on their


left, such as:
0.5

0.515

0.25

Significant Digits

Do the numbers 5000 and 5000. imply the same


significance?
5000. contains four significant digits.
5000 is an ambiguous number. It contains either
one, two, three, or four significant digits.
How do you write 5000 to two significant digits?

Use scientific notation: 5.0 X 103

Significant Digits

How many significant figures should


you use?
The number of significant digits used
implies a certain maximum error
range.

Significant Digits
Example:
The number 101 has three significant figures and
means a number between 100.5 and 101.5. The
error range is 1 ( 0.5) or about 1% of 101.
Three significant figures implies a maximum error
range of 1%.
Four significant figures implies a maximum error
range of 0.1%.
Only in exceptional cases will precision better that
0.1% (four significant figures) be necessary in
engineering problems.

Rules for Significant Digits

In multiplication and division - use as


many significant digits as the number that
has the fewest (excluding exact conversion
factors)
(4.00 kg) (4 m/s2) = 16 kg m/s2
(2.43)*(17.675)= ? 42.95025
Ans. 43.0 @ 4.30x101
(2.479 h) (60 min/h) =? 148.74 min
Ans. 148.7 @ 1.487x10
Exact conversion factor

Rules for Significant Digits


In multiplication and division
(4.00x102) (2.2046 lbm/kg) =? 881.84lb
Ans. 882 lb
Conversion factor is not exact; cannot
increase precision
Use one or more significant figure for
your conversion factor

Rules for Significant Digits


In addition and subtraction - line up the
decimals and retain the least significant
place.
897.0
- 0.0922
896.9078
896.9 (Answer)

Rules for Significant Digits


Combined operations:
If products or quotients are to be added or
subtracted, perform the multiplication and
division first, establish the correct number of
significant figures in the sub answer, perform
the addition and subtraction, then round to
the proper number of significant figures.

Rules for Significant Digits


Combined operations:
When using calculator, it is normal practice
to perform entire calculation and then
report a reasonable number of significant
figures
Note; 39.7/(772.3-772.26)=992.5
But if 772.3-772.26=0, then it becomes
impossible
Use common sense

Rules for Significant Digits


Rounding
827.48 rounds to 827.5 or 827
23.650 rounds to 23.7 (3 significant
figures)
0.0143 rounds to 0.014 (2 significant
figures)

Rules for Significant


Digits
Combined operations:
If using a calculator or computer,
perform the entire operation and then
round to the correct number of
significant digits.

Sometimes, common sense and good


judgment is the only applicable rule!

Team Work
1. How many significant digits are
contained in each of the following
quantities

A) 5 760 000
B) 222.230
C) 4.626 7x102
D) 0.000 6
B) 1.320x103

Team Work
Perform the following computational and
report with the answer rounded to the
proper number of significant digits. (No
numbers are exact conversions)

A) 3.735-1.43
B) 6.231 827x(4.23x107)
C) 4500.3+372
D) 4 300 240/784

Team Work
Perform the suggested calculations
using exact conversions or with
enough significant digits so that it
does not affect the accuracy of the
answer
4376 ft to miles (1 mi =5 280 ft)
653.545 kg to N (g=9.806 65 m/s2)
7.8*1010 atoms to mole (NA=6.022 136
736*1023 atoms/mol)

4.3 Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy

Accuracy - nearness to the correct value.

Example:
A chemistry instructor makes a 5.00% sugar solution.
Using a sugar assay, a team of students analyzes
the solution and reports the following results:
Student
Result
A
5.03%
B
4.96%
C
2.98%

Precision

Precision - repeatability of the measurement


indicates scatter in the data

Example:
A chemistry instructor makes a 5.00% sugar solution.
Using a sugar assay, a team of students analyzes the
solution in triplicate and reports the following results:
Student
Result
A
5.03%, 4.97%, 5.07%
B
4.49%, 5.52%, 5.01%
C
2.98%, 7.98%, 9.23%

Precision vs. Accuracy

Measurements
Measurements can be reported as a
value plus or minus a number

Example; 32.30.2
32.3, 32.1 and 32.5 are acceptable
Example 220 oF with 1% accuracy
2.2 oF

4.4 Errors

Error

Error is the difference between a measured or


calculated (reported) value and the true value.
Engineers recognize that errors are present in
their professional lives and must be able to:
1. Identify types of errors
2. Numerically express the magnitude of errors
3. Recognize the confidence that may be
placed in a printed number

Simple Error Analysis

Suppose a rod of unknown length is


measured with a standard meter stick.
Spend 5 minutes as a team completing
this exercise:
What can be said about the length of the
rod is reported as:
7 to 8 cm
7.5 to 7.6 cm
7.57 to 7.59 cm?

Systematic

Errors

Systematic Errors - errors that can be


attributed to some regular outside
occurrence.
Engineers must be aware of the presence
of systematic errors and eliminate those
possible and try to quantify and correct for
those remaining.

Systematic

Errors

The error associated with systematic


errors can be corrected if the source and
magnitude are known.
Repeating measurements will not
eliminate or reduce systematic errors.

Example of Systematic Errors


Measuring 1200 m with 25 m steel tape
If the tape is not exactly 25.000m,
there will be systematic errors 48
times
Temperature effect;
Can be corrected by using thermal
expansion coefficient
But again, thermometer error

Example of Systematic Errors


Tension difference when measuring
tapes
Smoothness of the surface can be
different

Random

Errors

Accidental (Random) Errors - errors


that occur in a random nature.
The presence of accidental errors is
evident by the scatter in measured
data.

Random

Errors

It is impossible to predict the magnitude


and sign of the accidental error present
in any one measurement.
Repeating measurements and
averaging the results will reduce the
random error in the average.

Example of Random Errors


Reading graduation level
The measuring tape may sag during
measurement
To correct this error, calculate
deflection using A, I, E, tension T; all
involves errors

Random Error
Refinement of the apparatus and care in its
use can reduce the magnitude of error
Awareness of the problem, knowledge of
the degree of precision of the equipment,
skill with measurement procedures, and
proficiency in the use of statistics allow us
to estimate the magnitude of error

What type of error is it?


The produce scale at the grocery store has water on
it. (The water runs off the produce)
The timekeeper sneezes at the moment the runners
cross the finish line.
Gasoline sloshed from your tank prior to the pump
shutting off (mpg calculation).
Measuring with a 100 ft tape that is actually 99.01 ft.
Press the wrong key(s) on a calculator during a long
calculation.

Definitions
There are three ways to numerically
describe error:
1) True error = Reported value - True
value
2) Fractional error = True error / True
value
3) Percent error = Fractional error *
100%

An example:
Calculate the true error, fractional error and
percent error for:
Reported Value

Correct Value

Distance

Distance

feet

feet

109

100

1050

1000

45

50

17

20

4.5 Approximations

Approximation
Engineers strive for high-level precision
Also, it is important to be aware of an
acceptable precision and the time and
cost of attaining it
Engineers are expected to make an
approximation to the solution before
time and funds invested to increase
accuracy

Approximation; cont
Engineers rely on their basic
understanding of the problem under
discussion coupled with their previous
experience

Approximation; cont
The accuracy of these estimates
depends on:
1. Consequences of error,
2. Available reference materials,
3. Time allotted for estimate,
4. Experience with similar problems.

Example of Approximation
A city with 12000 population tries to
solve solid waste problem for next
ten years. A city council asks a civil
engineer how many acres of land will
be needed for the disposal of solid
waste.

Example of Approximation
A civil engineer quickly surveyed that
the national average of the solid
waste is 2.75 kg/capita/day
(2.75 kg/capita/day)*(365 days/year)
Approximately 1000 kg/year/person
Maybe compacted to 400 to 600
kg/m3

Example of Approximation
Approximately the per capita landfill volume
is 2 m3 each year
About the refuse of 2000 people per year
needs one acre if filled 1 m deep (1 acre =4
047 m2)
The city bedrock is 6 m deep, so 4 m deep fill
is possible
1.5 acres per year, 15 acres for 10 years
Growth factor of the city, recommend 20
acres

Team Work
Estimate the number of paper clips
that will fit in a box 16 by 10 by 12 in

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