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UNIT 22: STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR AND

DETAILING

Learning outcomes
LO1- Ability to determine the properties of structural materials
LO2- Understanding of fundamental structural concepts
LO3- Analysis of statically determinate structures
LO4- Design of structural elements
LO5- Detailing of structural elements

Links
Unit 26 : Properties and performance of construction materials
Unit 34 : Structural analysis and design

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Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

M/601/1282 - Lecture Note:

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04/28/15

Analysis of Structures
Analytical Methods
There are three approaches to the analysis
1. Mechanic of Materials (Strength of materials)
2. Elastic theory (Special case of the more general field of
continuum mechanics)
3. Finite element
Mechanic of Material Approach
Assumptions
a) The materials in question are elastic, that stress is related
linearly to strain
b) Material (but not the structure) behaves identically regardless
of direction of
the applied load.
c) All deformations are small.
d) Beams are long relative to their depth.
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M/601/1282 - Lecture Note:

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Statically determinate and indeterminate structures

If for the stable structure it is possible to find the internal forces
in all the members constituting the structure and supporting reactions at
all the supports provided from statical equations of equilibrium only, the
structure is said to be statically determinate.
System for which the principles of statical equilibrium are
insufficient to determine support reactions and/or internal force
distributions, i.e. there are greater number of unknowns than the number
of equations of statical equilibrium, are known as statically indeterminate
or hyperstatic systems.
Structural systems may be
1. Externally indeterminate but internally determinate
2. Externally determinate but internally indeterminate
3. Externally and internally indeterminate
4. Externally and internally determinate
** A system which is externally and internally determinate is said to be
determinate system.

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M/601/1282 - Lecture Note:

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Statical Determinacy in frames

Let: m= total number of members in a truss
j= number of connections
Minimum number of members required for the geometric or configuration
stability
m = 2j-3
If m< 2j-3 structure is unstable
m> 2j-3 structure with redundant members
** The expression serves as an indicator whether or not the internal
forces in a structure can be calculated by the equations of statics.
Since all the j joints of the structure are in equilibrium and there are two
equilibrium equations involving the summation of forces in X- and Ydirections, namely Fx=0 and Fy=0 at each joint, 2j equations of static
equilibrium are available for the entire structure to compute the support
reactions and internal forces in all the members.
Let: m= unknown member forces
r= unknown support reactions
For the adequacy of the number of the available equilibrium equations to
compute the support reactions and internal forces in all the members,
2j=(m+r) or m=2j-r

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M/601/1282 - Lecture Note:

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If 2j < m+r, there are more unknowns than the number of equilibrium
equations, the structure is statically indeterminate. The degree of
indeterminacy n=(m+r)-2j
If 2j > m+r, there are more equilibrium equations available than the
number of unknowns, such a structure is a mechanism and always
unstable. The structure does not have unique solution. Existence of more
than one solution indicates instability
Ex:1 Determine whether the trusses shown in following figures are stable.
If stable, then find whether they are statically determinate or
indeterminate.

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M/601/1282 - Lecture Note:

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Sign Convention
Use normal sign convention adopted for a 3-dimensional righthanded system of Cartesian or rectangular coordinate axes OX, OY and
OZ with origin O on the extreme left of the structure. The forces
measured from the origin towards positive directions of axes are always
positive. Rotational moments expressed in vector form pointing towards
positive directions of the axes are positive. Thus, moments that tend to
produce counterclockwise rotations are considered positive and those
tend to produce clockwise rotations are considered negative.
Free - Body Diagrams
For static analysis of bodies subjected to external loads,
analytical diagrams that illustrate the force systems acting on the objects
are called equilibrium or free-body diagrams. Using equilibrium concepts,
the numerical values of reactions that occur at supports and hence
internal forces, i.e. axial forces, shear forces and bending moments can
be determined. The major application of equilibrium analysis is in the
evaluation of reactions and internal forces by representing an object by a
series of free body diagrams.

International College of Business and

Technology

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

M/601/1282 - Lecture Note:

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International College of Business and

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04/28/15

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

M/601/1282 - Lecture Note:

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04/28/15

Shear Force and Bending Moment

Relationships among loading, shear force, and bending
moment
V

V+V

A small element of the beam shown in figure above (left) is taken at a

distance x from end 1. The forces acting on the element are shown in
figure above (right).
Resolving forces vertically,
V = (V+V)+wx

and V/x = -w

Limiting condition
dV/dx = -w
indicates that the slope of the shear force
diagram, at any section, equals the intensity of loading at that section.
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M/601/1282 - Lecture Note:

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Alternatively, since
dV = -wdx
dV = -wdx, and
V2-V1 = x1x2 -wdx where,
V1= Shear force in the beam at x=x1, V2 = shear force in the beam at x=x2 and the change in
shear force between the two sections equals the area of the load intensity diagram between
the two sections.
Taking moments about the lower right corner of the element gives the expression
M = (M+M)- Vx + w (x )2/2
Neglecting the small value (x )2 ,
M/x = V
The limiting condition is
dM/dx = V
indicates that the slope of the bending moment diagram at any
section equals the shear force at that section.

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04/28/15

It is possible for the total work done by the forces to be zero even though the particle is not
in equilibrium if the virtual displacement is taken to be in a direction perpendicular to their
resultant, R. We cannot, therefore, state the converse of the above principle unless we specify
that the total work done must be zero for any arbitrary displacement.
Thus;
A particle in equilibrium under the action of a system of forces if the total work done by
the forces is zero for ant virtual displacement of the particle.
Note-: The v is a purely imaginary displacement and is not related in anyway to the possible
displacement of the particle under the action of the forces F. v has been introduced purely
as a device for setting up the work-equilibrium relationship. The forces, F, therefore remain
unchanged in magnitude and direction during this imaginary displacement; this would not
be the case if the displacement were real.

Principle of Virtual work for a Rigid Body

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Consider the rigid body shown in figure above, which is acted upon by a system of external
forces, F1, F2,., Fk,, Fr. These external forces will induce internal forces in the body,
which may be regarded as comprising an infinite number of particles; on adjacent particles,
such as A1 and A2, these internal forces will be equal and opposite, in other words selfequilibrating. Suppose now that the rigid body is given a small, imaginary, that is virtual
displacement, v (or a rotation or a combination of both), in some specified direction. The
external and internal forces then do virtual work and the total virtual work done , W t, is the
sum of the virtual work, We, done by the external forces and the virtual work, Wi, done by
the internal forces.
Wt = We + Wi
Since the body is rigid, all the particles in the body move through the same displacement, v,
so that the virtual work done on all the particles is numerically the same. However, for a pair
of adjacent particles, such as A1 and A2 in above figure, the self equilibrating forces are in
opposite directions, which means that the work done on A1 is opposite in sign to the work
done on A2. Thus the sum of the virtual work done on A1 and A2 is zero. The argument can
be extended to the infinite number of pairs of particles in the body from which we conclude
that the internal virtual work produced by a virtual displacement in a rigid body is zero.
Wt = We
Since the body is rigid and the internal virtual work is therefore zero, we may regard the
body as a large particle. It follows that if the body is in equilibrium under the action of set of
forces, F1, F2,., Fk,, Fr , the total virtual work done by the external forces during an
arbitrary virtual displacement of the body is zero.

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Virtual work in a deformable body

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In structural analysis we are not generally concerned with forces acting on a rigid body.
Structures and structural members deform under load, which means that if we assign a virtual
displacement to a particular point in a structure, not all points in the structure will suffer the
same virtual displacement as would be the case if the structure were rigid. This means that
the virtual work produced by the internal forces is not zero as it is in the rigid body case,
since the virtual work produced by the self-equilibrating forces on adjacent particles does not
cancel out. The total virtual work produced by applying a virtual displacement to a
deformable body acted upon by a system of external forces is
Wt = We + Wi
If the body is in equilibrium under the action of the external force system then every particle
in the body is also in equilibrium. Therefore, from the principle of virtual work, the virtual
work done by the forces acting on the particle is zero irrespective of whether the forces are
external or internal. It follows that, since the virtual work is zero for all particles in the body,
it is zero for the complete and
We + Wi = 0
Note that in the above argument only the conditions of equilibrium and the concept of work
are employed. Thus the above equation does not require the deformable body to be linearly
elastic (i.e.it need not obey Hookes law) so that the principle of virtual work may be applied
to any body or structure that is rigid, elastic or plastic. The principle does require that
displacements, whether real or imaginary, must be small, so that we may assume that external
and internal forces are unchanged in magnitude and direction during the displacements.
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In addition the virtual displacements must be compatible with the geometry of the structure
04/28/15
and the constraints that are applied, such as those at a support .
Problems
Calculate the support reactions in the simply supported beam shown in figures below.
1.

3.

2.

4.

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