TRANSPORT

EXAMPLES OF MATERIALS
TRANSPORTED

INTO THE CELL

OUT OF THE
CELL

-OXYGEN

-CARBON DIOXIDE

-NUTRIENTS

-UREA

-WATER

-HEAT

-HORMONES

Activity 1
2 Students walk
along different
distance. Which
student arrives
earlier

How can you relate the situation with

these organisms in transporting
materials into their bodies?

Multicellular organism

Unicellular organism

Multicellular organism

Unicellular organism

What do you think about the size

between these two oeganisms?

Size

tsa/v

-The physical implications are :

a) smaller living organisms have larger TSA/V rati
TSA/V ratio helps in the efficient gaseous or so

b) larger living organisms have very small TSA/V r

TSA/V ration limits the rate of gaseous or solu

TRANSPORT IN UNICELLULAR
ORGANISMS

-transport materials over short distance, su

adjacent cells.

- by simple diffusion, osmosis, active transp

(circulation or streaming of cytoplasm wit
- its cell membrane is in full contact with
its environment.
so, the materials needed are transported
directly into the
cell.

TRANSPORT IN MULTICELLULAR
ORGANISMS

-cell do not contact with external

environment
- there are layers of cells below the
epidermal cell layer
-simple diffusion cannot transport
substances (oxygen,
nutrients, co2 and waste products) to the
body cells.
-need transport system to transport

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
-Circulatory system transports substances such as nutrients,
water and oxygen to the body cells and removes carbon dioxide
and other nitrogenous wastes from the body cells.
-The circulatory systems of humans and animals consist of 3
components:
a) a medium/fluid required to carry materials around the
circulatory system (blood, haemolymph)
b) vessels tubes for the medium to flow through
c) pump heart that help to propel and circulate the medium
around the body

HUMAN BLOOD
Blood cells

Plasma

Erythrocyte
Thrombocyt
s
es
(red blood
(platelets)
cell)
Leucocytes
(white blood
cell)
Granulocytes
basophil
Neutrophil
eosinophil

Agranulocytes
monocytes
Lymphocytes

Fibrinogen

Serum

ERYTHROCYTES
- 5 million per mm3 of blood
-Tiny (8m), biconcave, disc shape
-Do not have nucleus, mitochondria or
ribosomes
-Full of haemoglobin
- made in the bone marrow, live for about 120
days
- Destroyed and recycled in the liver

-Adaptations of erythtocytes:
a) have no nucleus provide more space for haemoglobin
b) transport oxygen haemoglobin combine to oxygen and form
oxyhaemoglobin
c) transport CO2 haemoglobin combine to CO2 as hydrogencarbonate
d) biconcave, disc shape increase the TSA/V ratio for optimum
gaseous exchange
e) small and flexible can diffuse through narrow capillary walls

LEUCOCYTES
-colorless, do not have haemoglobin
-Larger than erythrocytes, fewer in number
-7000 per mm3 of blood. Raised the number
of leucocytes (leucocytosis), decrease the
number of leucocytes ( leucopenia)

Leucocytes in blood

-Irregular shape, have nucleus

-Important in body defence mechanisms against disease
- divided into 2 basic types : granulocytes and agranulocytes

granules

-Have granular cytoplasm and

lobed nucleus.
-Produce in bone
marrow

Bi-lobed
nucleus

Granulocyte
s

-Amoeboid
movement and
engulf bacteria by phagocytosis

-Divide into 3 types:

a) Neutrophils form 70% of
total leucocytes
- has multi-lobed
nucleus
- engulf bacteria by
phagocytosis
b) Eosinophils 2-4% of total
leucocytes
- detoxify chemical,
reduce inflammation
c) Basophils 1% of leucocytes

Agranulocytes

Granulocytes

Have non-granular cytoplasm,

compact nucleus

AGRANULOCYTES
b) Lymphocytes
a) Monocytes

Divide into 2 types Largest of the five types of

white blood cell
Produce in bone marrow
Consist 5-8% of all leucocytes
Have bean-shaped nucleus
Ingest bacteria by phagocytosis
-

Has large, rounded

nucleus and small
amount of non-granular
cytoplasm
Large nucleus contain
genes for antibody
protein production
Produced in lymph
glands and lymphatic
nodes
Produced antibodies

THROMBOCYTES (PLATELETES)
-

Are tiny fragments of megakaryocytes (bone

marrow cell) found in the bone marrow.

Colourless, irregular shape, no nucleus.

Measures about 2-3m across.

Made in the bone marrow and last for about

6-7 days.

Have amoeboid movement

Important in blood clotting, repairing damaged tissues and

maintain the integrity of blood vessel wall.

PLASMA
-

Yellowish liquid which the blood cells are suspended.

Consist about 90% water, 10% dissolved substances.

Dissolved substances consist of plasma proteins, dissolved

gases, absorbed food molecules, excretory waste products,
hormones and salts.

Heat produced by respiration is being absorbed by plasma.

Content of blood plasma

Content

Composition

Water

90% of the plasma

As a solvent and transport medium

Proteins

Albumins for viscocity and osmotic

balance
Antibodies e.g. globulin for
immunity
Clotting factors such as fibrinogen
and prothrombin

Dissolved
gases

Consist of CO2 and O2

Absorbed
food
molecules

Consist of glucose, amino acids,

fatty acids, vitamins

Excretory
waste
products

Consist of CO2, urea, uric acid,

creatinine

Hormones

Adrenaline,insulin,glucagon,

FUNCTION OF BLOOD AND HAEMOLYMPH IN

TRANSPORT
-

Functions of blood:
a) transport of materials
b) defence against diseases

FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD IN TRANSPORT

Materials
transport
ed

Examples Transported Transporte Transporte

in
d from
d to

Oxygen

Haemoglo
bin in
erythrocyt
es

CO2

Haemoglo
bin in
erythrocyt
es

Gases

Lungs

Respiring
cells

Respiring
cells

Lungs

Hydrogen
carbonate
ions in
plasma

Absorbe

Amino
acids

Liver and

Bone
marrow

Iron
Mineral
salts

Calcium

Plasma

Intestines

Iodine

Hormone Insulin
s
Antidiureti

Thyroid
glands

Pancreas

Liver

Plasma

Pituitary
gland

Kidney

Plasma

Liver

Kidney

c hormone

Excretory Urea, uric

products acid,
ammoniu
m salts
Heat

Metabolic
heat

Teeth
and
bones

Whole
blood

Liver,
muscles

Whole
body

FUNCTION OF HAEMOLYMPH IN TRANSPORT

-

Haemolymph is the circulatory fluid in the body cavities of insects

that have an open circulatory system.

Known as insect blood.

Contains water, amino acids, sugars, salts and white blood cells

Help to transport hormones, nutrients, salts and metabolic wastes

around the body.

Does not contain haemoglobin

Does not transport oxygen and CO2 in insects, these gases are
transported by the tracheal system.

- Body cavity
contains
blood

- Responsibe for
the circulation of
blood

TYPES OF BLOOD CELLS

THE STRUCTURE OF HUMAN BLOOD VESSELS

- The heart is connected to a series of tubes called blood vessels.

-The main types of vessels : artery, arterioles, capillary, venule and

vein.

Blood flow in blood vessel

Artery, Vein vs Capillary : What are the

differences?

Artery

Capillary

Vein

Vessels
Aspect

Structure
of wall

3 layers
endothelium,
smooth
muscles,
fibrous
connective
tissue

Single layerendothelium

3 layersendothelium,
smooth
muscle,
fibrous
connective
tissue

Thickness
of wall

Thick

Very thin

Thinner than
artery

Direction of Away from the

blood flow
heart

From arteries Towards the

to veins
heart

Valve

Absent

Absent

Present

Oxygenate
d blood

Yes (except
pulmonary
artery)

Arteriole
carry
oxygenated
blood.
Venule carry

Carries
deoxygenate
d blood
(except
pulmonary

Blood
pressure

High

Decreases
from the
arteriole to the
venule

Low

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE

HUMAN HEART
-Enveloped by a membrane called pericardium.

Contractile cell

- Made up of cardiac muscles

-Cardiac muscles are made up of muscle fibres
-Each muscle fibre is made up of
interconnecting muscle cells.
-Muscle cells are joined one to another by
intercalary disc that allow the rapid
transmission of nervous impulses from cell to
cell through the tissue.
-Myogenic, it can relax and contract on its own (do not need nerve
to stimulate).

-Has 4 chambers :
a) 2 upper auricles / atria
b) 2 lower ventricles
-A thick muscular wall, called medium septum completely separate
the right side of the heart from its left side.
-The heart functions as 2 separate pumps side by side:
(a) The right side of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood
(b) The left side of the heart pumps oxygenated blood

-Contraction of the atria:

(a) when the right atrium contracts, blood passes into the lower right
ventricle.
(b) when the left atrium contracts, blood passes into the lower left
ventricle.
-Contraction of the ventricle:
(a) when the right ventricle contracts, it pumps blood out into the
pulmonary arteries.
(b) when the left ventricle contracts, it pumps blood out into the
aorta

Muscle fibre of a heart

-Thickness of the muscular walls:

(a) Atria have thinner and less muscular walls because they only
pump blood down the ventricles.
(b) Right ventricle has to pump blood to the lungs, and therefore
has a thick wall.
(c) Left ventricles has to pump blood to the body and has thickest
Pulmonary
wall.
Aorta

-Has 4 valves :
(a) Tricuspid valve
on the right side of the heart
has 3 flaps
prevents the backflow of blood into
the right atrium when the
right ventricle contracts.
(b) Bicuspid valve/ mitral valve
on the left side and has 2 flaps
prevents the backflow of blood into
the left atrium when the left
ventricles contracts.

Tricuspid
valve

artery

Bicuspid
valve

(c) Semi-lunar valves

found at the base of pulmonary artery and aorta
prevent the backflow of blood into the right and the left
ventricles when they relax.

Upper part tricuspid valve

Lower part bicuspid valve

Bicuspid valve (3D)

TESTING YOURSELF

THE CIRCULATION OF BLOOD IN

HUMAN
-Humans have closed, double circulatory system:
a) It is closed because the blood is contained within the heart and
the blood vessels, does not come in direct contact with the
respiring body cells.
b) It is double circulatory system because the blood passes
through the heart twice for each complete circuit of the body.
-Consist of 2 sub-circuits:
(a) Pulmonary circulation heart
(b) Systemic circulation heart

lung
heart
rest of the body

heart

Pulmonary
circulation

Systemic
circulation

PULMONARY CIRCULATION
- Deoxygenated blood from the heart is pumped from the right
ventricle through the pulmonary artery.
-Oxygenated blood from the lungs then return to the left atrium
through pulmonary vein.

SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION
- Supplies blood to all parts of the body, except the lungs.

-Oxygenated blood is pumped from the left ventricle into the aorta
before it is distributed by:
(a) subclavian arteries to the arms
(b) carotid arteries to the neck and head
-Superior vena cava collects deoxygenated blood from the upper
part of the body and return it to the right atrium.
-Inferior vena cava collects deoxygenated blood from the lower
part of the body and returns it to the right atrium.
-Heart receives blood form a pair of coronary arteries leading from
the aorta.

-The flow of blood during blood circulation is maintained by:

a) the pumping action of the heart ventricles press the blood

through the arteries into the capillaries.
b) contraction and relaxation of skeletal muscle around the veins
during the normal body movements to propel the blood to the
heart.
c) inhalation movements during inspiration, the thoracic pressure
is reduced, and this aids in drawing blood back into the heart.

THE PUMPING OF HEART

-

Two atria contract simultaneously:

a) blood from the right atrium is forced into the right ventricle
b) blood from left atrium is forced into the left ventricle

Two atria relax simultaneously:

a) left atrium receives blood from the pulmonary veins
b) right atrium receives blood from the superior upper part of
body) and inferior (lower part of body) vena cavae.

After a slight pause, two ventricles contract (systole)

simultaneously :
a) blood in the right ventricle is forced into the pulmonary artery
and blood in the left ventricle is forced into the aorta.

b) Blood in the right ventricle and the left ventricle is prevented

from flowing back into the atria by the closure of bicuspid
tricuspid valve.
c) The simultaneous closure of the two valve will produce lub
sound.
-When 2 ventricles relax (diastole):
a) the volume of the ventricles increase; drawing in blood from
the atria.
b) blood in the arteries (pulmonary artery and aorta) is prevented
from flowing back to the ventricles by the closure of both the
two semilunar valves, produce dub sound.
-A heartbeat consist of a systole (lub sound) and a diastole
(dub sound).
- Normal heartbeat 72 times/minute

BLOOD PRESSURE AND THE REGULATORY

MECHANISM
-

Blood pressure is the force that blood exerts on the walls of the
blood vessels, which is measured in millimetres of mercury
(mmHg).

Caused by the contraction of the heart and by the muscles that

surround blood vessels.

Blood pressure in the arteries is highest when the ventricles

contract (systole) and force the blood into the pulmonary artery
and the aorta.

Blood pressure decreases when the two ventricle relax (diastole).

-Normal blood pressure : 120/80 mmHg , 120 over 80

- The first number represent the pressure when the ventricles
contract.
-The second number represents the pressure when the ventricle
relax.
-In human, blood pressure is regulated by:
a) nervous system send impulse to speed up or slow down the
heart rate
b) kidney regulate blood pressure by controlling the amount of
fluid in our blood. When blood pressure is too high, kidneys
remove water from the blood (less volume of blood), blood
pressure become lower.

REGULATION OF BLOOD PRESSURE BY THE

NERVOUS SYSTEM
-Baroreceptor / stretch receptors groups of nerve fibres within
the walls of the carotid sinus (a swelling of the internal carotid
artery) and the aortic.

-If blood pressure in the arteries is high:

a) the baroreceptors detect it and send impulses from the sensory
nerves to the cardiovascular centre in the medulla oblongata of
the brain.

b) Cardiovascular centre of the brain sends impulses (in the vagus

nerve of the parasympathetic nervous system) to the heart to
decrease the heart rate and also the cardiac output (volume of
blood pumped by the heart).

c) At the same time, the cardiovascular centre sends nervous

impulses to relax the smooth muscles of the arterioles,
causing the arterioles to dilate (vasodilation) and reduce the
resistance to blood flow.
d) A reduced heart rate, a lowered cardiac output and a
vasodilation of the arterioles will help to reduce the blood
pressure.

High

Decreased Heart Rate

and cardiac output
Parasympathetic

Stimulate smooth
muscle in the
arterioles to dilate

/ medulla
(Baroreceptor)

-If blood pressure drops too low:

i) The baroreceptors detect it and stimulate the cardiovascular
centre to send the nervous impulse (via the sympathetic nervous
system):
to increase the heart rate (via the sympathetic nerve)
to stimulate the smooth muscles in the arterioles to contract
(vasoconstriction) to decrease flow of blood.
ii) An increased heart rate and a vasoconstriction of the arterioles
will help to increase blood pressure.

Stimulate
smooth
muscle
in the
arterioles
to contract

(Baroreceptor)

/medulla

CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS IN OTHER ANIMALS

INCOMPLETE
e.g. amphibians

COMPLETE
e.g. humans, birds

-Single circulation blood passes through the heart only once in

a complete circulation of the body
-Double circulation blood passes through the heart twice in a
complete circulation of the body
lizards, snakes, and turtles have incomplete septums,
oxygenated blood and deoxygenated blood may
mix to some degree.
In crocodiles a complete septum and a valve prevent this
from happening.

Open or closed circulatory

system?

b) Closed circulatory system

- found in all vertebrates (human, fish) and invertebrates
(earthworms).
- blood is pump within a vessel and never comes in direct
contact with the body cells.
- can transport oxygen and other materials faster

Open vs Closed circulatory system : what are the

differences?

Types of Closed Circulatory System : Compare the structure

FISH
- Has a simple two-chambered heart, consisting of an atrium and
ventricle that are separated by atrio-ventricular valve.

-Atrio-ventricular valve prevents the backward flow of the blood

from the ventricle into the atrium.
-lood circulation:
a) ventricle of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the capillary
network of the gills to be oxygenated.

b) Arteries carry the fully oxygenated blood from the gills to

various parts of body capillaries.
c) Deoxygenated blood from the body capilaries returns to the
atrium of heart.
Heart
Heart
Gills
Body
(ventricle
(atrium)
)
-Fish have a
a) single circulation blood is pumped through the heart only
once.
b) closed circulation blood is always contained within the
heart and blood vessels.
-Disadvantage of the single circulation single heart has to pump
blood through the gill capillary network and the body capillary
network. Thus, reduce blood pressure and sluggish flow of blood

AMPHIBIANS
- Has 3 chambered heart, consist two atria and one ventricle
(partially divided).

Pulmonary
artery

Vena
cavae

-Blood circulation:
Pulmonary artery carries blood
from the ventricle to the
pulmonary capillary network,
Pulmonary
where gas exchange occurs.
vein
Pulmonary vein returns
oxygenated blood from the lungs
Aorta
to the left atrium of the heart
Vena cava returns deoxygenated
blood from the systemic capillaries
to the right atrium.
Single ventricle receives both
oxygenated blood and
deoxygenated blood.

 When the ventricle contract, a mixture of oxygenated and

deoxygenated blood is pumped into both the pulmonary artery

and aorta.
-Amphibians have:
incomplete double circulation although blood is pumped through
the heart twice in a circulation,
there is a mixing of oxygenated
and deoxygenated blood in the
ventricle.
closed circulation blood is contained within the blood vessel
-Advantage for incomplete double circulation is higher blood
pressure, so the flow of blood is more efficient compared to fish.

BIRDS
-Have 4-chambered heart that completely separate oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood.
-Septum of the heart is complete, providing 2 separate circulatory
systems:
Pulmonary circulation right atrium and right ventricle
receives deoxygenated blood from
the body and send it to the lungs
Systemic circulation the left atrium and left ventricle receive
oxygenated blood from the lungs and
sends it to the body tissues.

-Birds have higher metabolic rate than humans, the pulse rate of
chicken can reach 400 beats/minute.
-Its ventricle have more muscle mass and less chamber space than
human.

BLOOD CLOTTING
-Importance of blood clotting:
a) prevents excessive blood loss which make blood pressure
dangerously low.
b) prevents the entry of microorganisms and foreign particles
into the body
c) forms scabs and helps in the healing of wounds
d) maintains the circulation of blood in a closed system

MECHANISM OF BLOOD CLOTTING

- Blood flowing in blood vessels is prevented from clotting by a
substance called heparin (family of carbohydrate) found in the
blood plasma.
-Blood clotting is initiated by the:
a) clotting factors from damaged cells
e.g. fibrinogen, prothrombin, thromboplastin, calcium ions
b) Collagen fibres from damaged blood vessel wall
- Mechanism of blood clotting:

IMPAIRED BLOOD CLOTTING MECHANISM

a) Deficient in calcium and vitamin K:
o It will take a longer time than normal
o cause bleeding
b) Haemophilia
Blood is unable to clot because the deficiency of blood
proteins
Cause bleeding or death

c) Thrombosis
Thrombosis is the formation of a clot or thrombus inside a
blood vessel, blocking the flow of blood.
The blockage stops the tissues from receive blood flow and
oxygen
cause damage to the tissues in that area
A clot formed in coronary artery cause heart attack.
A clot formed in the brain cause strok.

Heart attack

Strok

Thrombus vs embolus
A clot that adheres to the vessel wall is called a thrombus,
where as the intravascular clot that floats in the blood is
embolus

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
-The space between tissue cells
interstitial space
-Interstitial space is filled with a
colourless liquid interstitial fluid

-The formation of interstitial fluid and lypmh :

a) Blood enters the arterial ends of the
capillary network under high pressure
b) Endothelial cell walls of the capillaries act as filter. Large cellular
components (red blood cell) and large protein molecules cannot
pass through. Only water and dissolved substances of
the plasma (oxygen, products of digestion and hormone) can
diffuse out of the cell.
c) Blood plasma diffuse out into the interstitial spaces to form
interstitial fluid.
d) The process of producing interstitial fluid from the blood is
called ultrafiltration.
e) The interstitial fluid circulates among the tissue cells and
returns to the blood circulatory system in two ways:
(i) passes into the venous end of the capillaries

ii) drain into the lymph capillaries as lymph

Contents

Blood

Plasma

Interstitial
fluid

Lymph

Water

Plasma
proteins
(albumin,
globulin,
fibrinogen
)

X
(proteins
remain in
blood
capillaries
)

Platelets

Leucocyte
s

(lymphocy
tes)

erythrocy
tes

Ions
(Na+,K+,Ca
2+
)

Nutrients

(more

Waste
products
(urea, uric
acid)

Gases

Hormones

- The importance of interstitial fluid:

a) tissue fluid fills the interstitial spaces between the tissue cells,
providing them with a stable external environment
b) nutrients and oxygen from the bloodstream in the capillary
network diffuse across the capillary walls into the interstitial fluid
and then into the tissue cells.
c) waste products that accumulate within the active cells diffuse
in the opposite direction across the interstitial fluid from the cells
to the capillaries.

STRUCTURE OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

-Lymph is found inside the lymph vessels.
-The composition of lymph is similar to interstitial fluid but with
more fats.
-Main structures of the lymphatic
system:
a) Lymphatic capillaries:
- larger in diameter than the
blood capillaries
- located next to blood
capillaries in tissue spaces
- very permeable to tissue
fluid
- found as lacteals in the villi
of the small intestine

b) Lymphatic vessel
- formed from lymph capillaries
- similar as veins (have 3 layered walls), but have thinner
walls and more valves
- carry lymph away from the tissues
c) Lymph node
- small round or oval structures
- contains a network of fibres
and irregular channels
acting like a filter
- filter lymph when it
flows through the
nodes
- eliminates bacteria
and cellular debris by
phagocytosis

d) Spleen
- an organ located on the left side of the abdomen near the
stomach
- produce lymphocytes, filters the
blood, store blood cells, destroy old
blood cells.
e) Lymph ducts (larger lymph vessel)
- lymph vessels drain their contents
back into the bloodstream
- Thoracic duct (left lymphatic duct)
and right lymphatic duct.

How lymph return back to our

circulatory system?

- Lymph is moved along the lymph vessel by:

a) Hydrostatic pressure of interstitial fluid- push lymph along the
lymphatic capillaries
b) Contraction of skeletal muscle lymph flow along the lymphatic
vessel
c) Valves within lymphatic vessel lymph flow away from the tissue
to the heart in one direction
d) Inhalation reduce pressure in thoracic cavity and drawing lymph
towards the thorax.

-Function of lymphatic system:

a) transport interstitial fluid back to the bloodstream
b) distributes fluids and nutrients in the body and drains excess
fluids and protein so that tissues do not swell up
c) transport fat and fat-soluble vitamin from small intestine into
the blood circulation
d) provides immunological defence against disease by:
(i) produce lymphocytes and antibodies to fight and destroy
microorganisms
(ii) filtering out microorganisms and other foreign substances
from the lymph by the lymph nodes and from the blood by
the spleen.

WHEN INTERSTITIAL FLUID FAILS TO RETURN

TO THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
-Too much interstitial fluid is produced, but little or none is
reabsorbed back into the circulatory system.
-Cause the organs and tissues of the body to swell up- oedema
-Oedema can be caused by:
a) increase in the capillary blood
pressure, forcing an excess fluid
leakage to the interstitial space
b) blockage of the lymphatic vessel
which slows down the drainage
of excess interstitial fluid.

-Elephantiasis caused by the blockage of the bodys lymphatic

system by certain parasitic round worms leading to oedema.

ROLE OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM IN BODY DEFENCE

MECHANISM

-First and second lines of the defence mechanism:

a) nonspecific they do not distinguish infectious pathogens
b) inborn they are natural built-in defences
- for example :skin act as barrier to the pathogens
: phagocytes engulf pathogens
c) provide immediate protection against invading pathogens.
-Third line of defence mechanism:
a) specific distinguish specific pathogens. For example,
lymphocytes produce specific type of antibody to fight
pathogens.
b) Acquired and developed
c) takes a longer time to be effective, but remember the past
infections. So, it can be better prepared for future invasions by the
same type of pathogens.

FIRST LINE DEFENCE

-Skin
provides a continuous layer
protect a whole body.
Few microorganisms can
penetrate the layers of dead
cells at the surface of the skin.
A cut in the skin allow the
microorganisms to enter the body.
Blood clots plug the wound and prevent the e
of microorganisms.

-Mucous membrane

lines all tissues and organs such as respirator

digestive, urinary and reproductive tracts.
secrete mucus, which is thick, slippery liquid t
protect the membrane and keep it moist and s
protect the interior surfaces of the body that m
exposed to pathogens

-Both the skin and mucous membrane are nonspec

defence because:
a) use the same barrier against all types of
microorganisms
b) not directed against any particular pathoge

CHEMICALS USE BY SKIN AND MUCOUS

MEMBRANE

-Perspiration/sweat
Excreted from sweat glands contains lysozyme
acids that destroy harmful bacteria and inhibi
growth of fungi.

-Lysozyme
also present in tears, saliva and nasal secretio

-Sebum
low pH
prevents the growth of certain microorganisms
and fungi

- Mucus
trap microorganisms and dirt
particles.
-Cilia
little hair that carry the mucus,
trapped microorganisms and dirt
towards the glottis to the throat
- Acid in gastric juice
kills microorganisms present in
food or water on in swallowed
mucus.

SECOND LINE DEFENCE

-Take action when pathogens can penetrate the ski

or mucous membrane.
-Nonspecific immune response because use same
method of defence to all type of pathogens.

-The nonspecific immune response include:

a) phagocytosis carried out by white blood cells
as neutrophils, macrophages a
occasionally eosinophil.
b) natural killer cells destroy infected cells and p
cancerous cells.

c) Inflammation involve redness, heat, swellin

d) Fever high temperature kill bacteria by
denaturing their protein and help heal
process

PHAGOCYTOSIS
-Phagocytosis (phago = eat; cyte = cell) attack,
engulf and destroy pathogens

-Two common types of phagocytes are neutrophils

macrophages

-Neutrophils:
circulate freely through the blood vessels
squeeze between cells of the capillary wall to
the site of infection, attracted by the chemica
released by the microorganisms (chemotaxis).
first phagocytes to arrive at the injured tissue
macrophages.

-Macrophages
another type of phagocyte developed from
monocytes (white blood cells)
longer-lived and arrived at the inflamed site s
3-7 days later after the neutrophils.

PROCESS OF
PHAGOCYTO
SIS

NATURAL KILLER CELLS

INFLAMMATION

THIRD LINE OF DEFENCE

- Immunity : ability of the human body to resist in

-Immune response : bodys defence reaction when

antigen is recognized and specific antibodies ar
produced by lymphocytes to defend against
pathogens

-Antigen : foreign protein molecule (bacteria, viru

fungi) that enter the body and stimulate the
production of antibodies

-Antibody : a protein substance produced by immu

system to recognize antigen.

: Y shaped protein molecule that also know

as immunoglobulin.
: function destroy or weaken a pathogen
neutralise its toxin

-2 white blood cells that involved:

a) lymphocytes produce antibodies
b) macrophages - phagocytosis

- Antigen recognition and the production of antibo

takes place when:

WAYS WHICH ANTIBODIES HELP TO DEFENSE

BODY
a)
b)
c)
d)

Agglutination
Opsonisation
Neutralisation
Precipitation

AGGLUTINATION

-Antibodies and antigens stick together and the

microorganisms clump together in large numbe
making the antigens harmless.
-The inactive pathogens are then ingested by
phagocytes.

OPSONISATION
- An

antigen is covered with antibodies which mak

easier for ingestion by phagocytes.

Cell produce from

differentiation of
monocytes

-An antibody-coated pathogen can be made to burs

(cell lysis), killing it before being ingested by phag

NEUTRALISATION

- Antibodies bind to the toxins (antigens), neutrali

poison of the toxin.

-When an antibody binds to a toxin, it is called ant

-The neutralised toxin is then ingested by the
phagocytes

-Virus and bacteria are similarly neutralised to pre

them from attach and penetrate the body cells.

PRECIPITATION
- Antibodies bind to the soluble antigens, cause
to precipitate.
- Then, they will be ingested by phagocytes.

VARIOUS TYPES OF IMMUNITY

-After an initial infection, some lymphocytes are ke

in the body as a memory. This helps the body to
defend itself against further attacks by the same
antigens.
-As this memory may last for years, the body is
be immune to the disease.
-There are 2 types of immunity:
a) active immunity
b) passive immunity

Active immunity

Passive immunity

Acquired when
lymphocytes in the
body are activated by
antigens to produce
antibodies

Occur when a person

becomes temporary
immune to an antigen
by
receive ready-made
antibodies from
another
person or animal.

Lasts for a long time

Lasts only for a short

time
as the antibodies
eventually die off or
removed from the
body as
foreign proteins.

- Some vaccines are made from:

a) live attenuated (weakened) pathogens mea
mumps, rubella, chickenpox
b) killed pathogens influenza, Japanese encep
(J.E), hepatitis A, typhoid fever
c) toxoid bacterial toxin that has been weake
and no longer toxic tetanus, diphtheria

EFFECTS OF HIV ON THE BODYS DEFENCE

MECHANISM

- HIV : H for Human, because it infect humans

I - Immunodeficiency, because virus attack the
bodys immune system, weakening it so th
it cannot fight other deadly disease
V Virus belong to the group, retrovirus

- AIDS Acquired, person get HIV from another in

person.
- Immune, refer to the bodys defence system
- Deficiency , making the immune system
deficient
- Syndrome, refer to a group of illness

- When the immune system is weakened:

a) the body becomes vulnerable to a variety of
infections and cancers.
b) other infections take advantage of the weak
immune system. These called as opportun
infections.
c) the body becomes so weak, and the person d

- Transmission of HIV by:

a) direct contact with infected blood
b) sexual contact with an HIV-infected person
c) HIV-infected mothers to infants during pregn
delivery or breastfeeding
d) sharing needles with drug users who are inf
with HIV
- HIV is not transmitted
a) by insect bites
b) through the air
c) hugging, touching, handshaking
d) living in the same house
e) sharing food and water
f) sharing cup, glass, plates etc.

TRANSPORT OF SUBSTANCES IN
PLANTS

- Transport system is necessary because:

a) CO2 is absorbed and transported to
photosynthesising cells
b) O2 is released from photosynthesising cells
the atmosphere.
c) water and minerals from the roots have to b
transported to the leaves
d) photosynthetic products (sugar, amino acid
have to be transported away from the leave
for storage and to other tissues.

- Transport functions are carried out by xylem an

phloem.

VASCULAR TISSUE IN STEM, ROOT

AND LEAF
- Consist of phloem and xylem.
- Roles of vascular tissue:
a) xylem transport water
support the plants
b) Phloem transport nutrient
- Vascular bundle
strand of conducting tissue
(xylem and phloem)
Stem phloem is located
outward facing the
epidermis, xylem is toward the centre.

 Leaf phloem facing at the lower part, xyl

at the upper part.

- A mature vascular bundle consist of xylem, phlo

and cambium. Cambium separate the xylem an
phloem.

STRUCTURE OF VASCULAR TISSUE

- The main tissues in a stem of a dicot :

a) epidermis
b) cortex, that contain collenchyma, chlorenchy
and endodermis
c) vascular bundle, that contain phloem and xyl
d) the pith

-The vascular bundles in the stem of a dicot are

arranged in a ring.

- The cambium is sandwiched between the xylem

and phloem.
-Cortex is located outside of the vascular bundle
in the stem.

- The pith is the tissue located inside the vascular

ring.
- Parenchyma- cells with thin primary walls
that retain
their protoplasm
- Collenchyma - cells with thick primary walls
that
retain their protoplasm
- Sclerenchyma- cells with lignified secondary
walls
that have lost their
protoplasm at
maturity, i.e. are 'dead'
- Chlorenchyma - Containing Chloroplast

VASCULAR TISSSUE IN THE LEAF OF A

DICOT

- Vascular bundle consist of:

a) xylem faces the upper epidermis
b) cambium that divides to produce xylem an
phloem cells
c) phloem faces the lower epidermis

VASCULAR TISSUE IN THE ROOT OF A DICOT

- Vascular tissue is packed in the centre.
- Other structures observed in the root:
a) root hair extension of the epidermal cells
- increase absorption of water by the
surface

b) epidermis absorption of water and minerals

c) cortex consist of endodermis and parenchym

that store starch.

d) pericycle layer of parenchyma cells inside t

endodermis where lateral root origin

RELATING THE STRUCTURE OF XYLEM TO

TRANSPORT
- Functions of xylem:
a) transport water and dissolved
minerals from the root to
other parts of cell (one way).
b) provide mechanical support
- Xylem consist:
a) vessel
b) tracheid
c) fibre (rigid secondary cell wall
for support and protection)
d) parenchyma (store food)

- Vessels
Dead cells that form hollow tube, which conn
the root to the leaf.
Deposited by lignin to strengthen it and supp
the stem

The structure of xylem vessel is adapted to

transport water because :
o
it has continuous lumen without any walls
protoplasm within it to allow the flow of w
and minerals salts
o the walls are lignified to provide strength a
prevent the water from collapsing

- Tracheids
Dead cells when matured
Long, slender cells with tapered, overlappin
Have thick, hard, lignified secondary cell wa
Smaller lumen than xylem vessel
No sieve plates at the end walls

- The movement of water in tracheids:

a) water moves sideway through the pits in ad
tracheid cells before going upward
b) movement of water upwards is slower than
vessel

RELATING THE STRUCTURE OF PHLOEM TO

TRANSPORT

- Transport food such as sugars and amino acids fr

the leaves for storage in stem and root

- Transport food from storage in roots to other par

plants.
- 2-way flow

- Components of phloem :
a) sieve tube
b) companion cells
c) parenchyma
d) fibres

a) Sieve tube

- made up of a single row

of elongated and thin-wall
living cells called sieve tube
cells.
- A mature sieve tube has only
thin layer of cytoplasm, no
nucleus or central vacuole,
lost most of its organelles
- Sieve plates separate sieve
tube cells at both ends.
- Sieve plates allow cytoplasmic
connections between vertically-stacked cells t
transport food by diffusion and active transpor

b) Companion cell
- lie next to each sieve tube cell
- has a nucleus, endoplasmic
reticulum, ribosomes and
mitochondria
- provide metabolic support for the
sieve tube cells in the transport of
manufactured food

REMOVING A RING OF PHLOEM TISSUE

FROM A PLANT

- Phloem can be removed by cutting a ring of bar

removing it from the stem.
- This ringing cuts off the supply of food downw
beyond the ring.
- Food that is transported from the leaves down t
in the phloem accumulates above the ring.
- After a few weeks, the bark above the ring swel
- This shows that sugar transported downward in
phloem.

TRANSLOCATION

- Movement of sugars and other organic material

one place to another within the plant body

-The importance:
a) distribute food to other parts of the plants s
seed, root, tuber.
b) without translocation, plants would not be a
metabolise food for energy, growth and
maintenance

TRANSPIRATION

-The loss of water by evaporation from the parts o

plants through the stomata of the leaves.

-Transpiration occur:
a) mainly through the open stomata 90% of wa
b) waxy cuticle very little water escape throug
cuticle of the leaves
c) lenticels of woody stem

PROCESS OF TRANSPIRATION

- There are intercellular air spaces among the spon

mesophyll cell.
- Spongy mesophyll cell has
moist surface
- Water evaporates from
these cells into the
intercellular spaces and
diffuse through the stomata
to the drier air outside the
leaf.

- As

these border of mesophyll cells lose water, the

sap becomes more concentrated and therefore dr
water by osmosis from the cells deeper inside the

- These cells in turn draw water from the xylem of

plant veins by osmosis.

-Water forms an unbroken water chain (by cohesio

adhesion force of water molecule) from the outer
surface of leaves to the roots.

-As the water evaporates from the plant leaves, th

attract other water molecules which are still in th
to the top.

Transpiration in plants

THE IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPIRATION

- The roles of transpiration:

a) cooling the plants

As water evaporates from the leaves, it rem
heat from the plant in the form of latent he
vaporisation, thereby cooling the plant

b) Provide support by turgor pressure

because water diffuse from higher concentr
to lower concentration, all the cells in the p
become turgid.

c) Transport water and mineral salts

Transpiration create a transpiration pull,
water and dissolved mineral salts up the
from the root to the leaf.

- Negative effect of transpiration:

a) if the rate of transpiration exceeds the intak
water by the roots, plants growth would be a
b) any excess loss of water causes the plant to
die

THE PATHWAY OF WATER FROM SOIL TO THE LEAVES

Stomata

Absorption and movement of water in plant

MOVEMENT OF WATER FROM SOIL TO ROOT

- The cell sap of root hairs is more concentrated t

soil water.

-The high solute concentration of the cell sap is du

the active transport of the solute molecules into
cell.

-Water moves from the soil water into the cell sap
hair by osmosis.

-When water enter the vacuole of the root hair ce

a) the cell sap becomes dilute and its concentra
and osmotic pressure are reduced

b) the turgor pressure of the cell increase and re

its suction pressure
c) the cell sap become hypotonic the cell sap of
adjacent cell
-Water from hypotonic root hair cell sap move to
adjacent hypertonic cells.

-Therefore, water move out from the root hair cell

adjacent cells, cortex and then into the xylem.

PATHWAY OF WATER UP THE STEM

-The

movement of water in the xylem up the stem

effected by:
a) root pressure
b) transpiration pull
c) cohesion- adhesion theory of water

a) Root pressure

- the pulling of water into the xylem from the

surrounding cells produces a hydrostatic pres
inside the xylem, forcing water upwards.
- this positive pressure is called root pressure.

b) Transpiration pull
- when water evaporates from mesophyll cells,
cell sap becomes more concentrated.
- these mesophyll cells in turn draw water by
osmosis from the cells found
in deeper inside the leaf.
- these inner cells which are
adjacent to the veins draw
water from them by osmosis.
- the column of water is
continuous from the root up
to the leaves

- as the mesophyll cells suck water from the xy

vessel, the whole column of water is pulled up
root to leaf (due to cohesive and adhesive of w
molecule)
- The pulling force is called transpiration pull

c) Cohesion-adhesion theory of water

- the continuous flow of water through the xy

depends on two important properties:
i) cohesion attraction between water and
molecules
ii) adhesion attraction between water and
vessel
- this is why water forms a continuous water
up the xylem vessel while being sucked up
the transpiration pull.

EXTERNAL CONDITIONS AFFECTING

TRANSPIRATION

- The amount of water lost from the plant in trans

depend on:
a) light intensity
b) temperature
c) relative humidity
d) air movement

a) Light intensity
- guard cells regulate the size of the stomata
openings:
i) under high light intensity, the stomata op
enlarge and transpiration increase
ii)under low light intensity, the stomata ope
decrease and transpiration decreases

- the rate of transpiration is directly proportio

the intensity of light.

b) Temperature
- High temperature increase the kinetic energ
water molecules which increases the rate of
diffusion through the stomata

- the rate of transpiration is directly proportio

to temperature

c) Relative humidity

- intercellular air spaces in the leaf are satura

water vapour.

- water vapour diffuse from the intercellular s

the air outside.

- this saturated water vapour diffuse out of th

a:
i) higher rate if the air outside is dry (high
relative humidity)
ii) lower rate if the air outside is damp (lo
humidity)

Graph humidity

d) Air movement

- In still air, water vapour that diffuse out throu

stomata forms a layer of still moist air aroun
leaf

- Moist air decrease the rate of water vapour d

and drop the rate of transpiration.

- Moving air carry away this layer of moist air fo

around a leaf and increase the rate of transpi

- The rate of transpiration is directly proportion

the velocity of the air current.

THE OPENING AND THE CLOSING OF THE

STOMA

- The uneven thickening of the outer and inner wa

the guard cells provide a mechanism for the ope
and the closing of the stoma.
- The inner concave wall of each
guard cell is very thick, but
the outer convex wall is thinner
- For high light intensity, the rate
of photosynthesis increase and
the guard cells absorb water
and become turgid.

- Water in each guard cell push the thin outer wa

that enlarge the stomata opening.

- Under poor light, the turgor pressure of the gua

drop, it become flaccid and the stoma become
smaller or closes.

HOW STOMA OPENS IN DAYLIGHT

- Photosynthesis

take place in the guard cell

Water enter the

Sugar Osmotic pressure
accumulates inin guard cellguard cell by
increase osmosis
guard cell

Stoma opens

Guard cell
become turgid

- Photosynthesis take place in the leaf cells

Concentration of
Starch in the cell is
CO2 in the leaf pH goes up converted into
sugar
cell drops

Stoma open

HOW STOMA CLOSES AT NIGHT

- Photosynthesis in guard cells stop

Concentration
of sugar in
guard cell
decrease

Osmotic
pressure
in guard
cell
decrease

Stoma close

Water
leaves
guard
cell by
osmosis

Guard
cell
flacci
d

- Photosynthesis

Concentratio
n of CO2 in
intercellular
space rise

in the leaf cells stop

pH
goes
down

Sugar is
convert
to
starch

Stoma
close