Theory & Research

Chapter 2

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Window on the World: Purposes of

Cross-Cultural Research
In what ways is development universal?
Language development
Motor development

Bias in Western theories and research?

Linguistic barriers
Observational issues

Cross-cultural comparison pitfalls?

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Guideposts for Study

1. What purposes do theories serve, and what are
the two theoretical issues on which developmental
scientists differ?
2. What are five theoretical perspectives on human
development and their representative theories?
3. How do developmental scientists study people,
and what are the advantages and disadvantages
of each research method?
4. What ethical problems may arise in research on
humans?
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Basic Theoretical Terms

Theory
A set of logically related concepts that seek to
describe and explain behavior and to predict what
kinds of behavior might occur under specific
conditions
Provides groundwork for hypotheses

Hypotheses
Tentative explanations that can be tested by
further research
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Theories of Development:
Is Development Active or Reactive?
Mechanistic Model: Passive
Locke: tabula rasa
Children are blank slates on
which society writes
People are machines reacting to

environment

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Theories of Development:
Is Development Active or Reactive?
Organismic Model: Active
Rousseau: noble savages
Children set their own
development in motion
People initiate events,
dont just react

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Theories of Development:
Continuous or Discontinuous?
Mechanistic Theories: Continuous
Focus on quantitative change
Same processes are involved
Think of a ramp

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Theories of Development:
Continuous or Discontinuous?
Organismic Theories: Stage
Focus on qualitative change
Different processes involved
Think

of stairs

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Five Major Perspectives

Psychoanalytic
Learning
Cognitive
Contextual
Evolutionary/Sociobiological

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Freuds Psychosexual Theory

Psychoanalytic
Unconscious forces motivate
human behavior
Psychoanalysis: Therapy that
gives insight into unconscious
emotional conflicts

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Freudian Parts of Personality

Id
Pleasure Principle

Ego
Reality Principle

Superego
Follows rules of society

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Freudian Psychosexual Stages

Stage

Age

Unconscious Conflict

Oral

Birth to about15
months

Sucking & feeding

Anal

1218 months to
3 years

Potty training

Phallic

3 to 6 years

Attachment to parents

Latency

6 years to puberty

Socialization

Genital

Puberty to adult

Mature adult sexuality

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Ericksons Psychosocial Theory

Neo-Freudian
Emphasized influence of society
Development is lifelong, not just during
childhood
Each of eight stages of
development involves a crisis
Crisis resolution gains a virtue

Infancy: trust vs. mistrust

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Learning Theory
Learning
Long-lasting change in
behavior, based on
experience

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Learning Theory:
Behaviorism
We respond based on whether the
situation is:
Painful or Threatening
Pleasurable

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Behaviorism:
Classical Conditioning
John Watson: Conditioning of Fear
Orphan boy Little Albert

1. Albert liked the furry rat

2. Rat presented with loud CRASH!

3. Albert cried because of noise

4. Eventually, site of rat made
Albert cry
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Behaviorism:
Operant Conditioning
Individual learns the consequences of
operating on the environment
Learned relationship between behavior
and its consequences
B. F. Skinner formulated original ideas by
working with animals, then applied them
to humans
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Operant Conditioning:
Reinforcement
Increases likelihood of behavior
reoccurring
Positive: Giving a reward
Candy for finishing a task

Negative: Removing something aversive

No chores for getting an A+ on homework

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Operant Conditioning:
Punishment
Decreases likelihood of behavior
reoccurring
Positive: Adding something aversive
Getting scolded

Negative: Removing something pleasant

Taking away car keys
Getting a time-out

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Social Learning Theory

Albert Bandura: Development is
bidirectional
Reciprocal determinismperson acts on
world as the world acts on the person

Observational Learning or
Modeling
Children choose models to imitate

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Social Cognitive Theory:

An Update to Modeling
Emphasizes cognitive processes as central
to development
Beginning of self-efficacy
People observe models and learn chunks
of behavior
Imitating dance steps of teacher
AND other students

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Cognitive Theory
Focuses on thought processes
and behavior that reflects those
processes

Includes organismic and

mechanistic theories

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Piaget:
Cognitive Stage Theory
Clinical Method
Combining observation with questioning

Development begins with an inborn

ability to adapt

Rooting for a nipple, feeling for a pebble

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Piagetian Cognitive Growth:

Organization
A tendency to create complex cognitive
structures, or schemes
Schemes
Organized patterns of behavior used to think
and act in a situation
Infants suck bottles AND thumbs

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Piagetian Cognitive Growth:

Adaptation
How children handle familiar information
Two processes:
Assimilation: Incorporating new information
into existing schemes
Accommodation: Changing structures to
include new information

These steps are balanced through

equilibration
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Sociocultural Theory

Lev Vygotsky

Stresses childrens active

interaction with social environments
Zone of proximal
development (ZPD)
Scaffolding
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Information Processing
Approach
Analyzes processes involved in
perceiving information
Helps children be aware of their own
mental strategies
and strategies for
improvement!
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Information-Processing Approach:
Computer-Based Models
Infers what happens between
stimulus and response
Often uses flowcharts to define
steps of processing that people use
Unlike Piaget, views
development as continuous
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Information Processing Approach:

Neo-Piagetian Theories
Focus on specific concepts,
strategies, and skills
Number concepts
Comparisons of more
and less

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Contextual approach
Development can be understood only in its
social contexts
Urie Bronfenbrenner
Describes range of interacting influences that
affect development
Identifies contexts that stifle or promote growth
Home, classroom, neighborhood

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Bronfenbrenners Five
Contextual Systems

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Evolutionary/Sociobiological
Theory
Uses Darwins evolutionary theory
Survival of the fittest
Animals with traits suited to environment survive
These adaptive traits are passed on to offspring

Natural selection
As environments change, traits change in

adaptiveness

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Evolutionary Theory:
Ethology
Study of distinctive behaviors that have
adaptive value
Innate behaviors evolved to increase
survival odds
Think of imprinting
Squirrels burying of nuts

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Evolutionary Psychology
How biology and environment interact to
produce behavior and development
Humans unconsciously strive for personal
survival and genetic legacy
Result: A development of mechanisms that
evolved to solve problems
Morning sickness actually protects fetuses

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Research Methods
Quantitative

Qualitative

Objectively
measurable data

Non-numerical data

Standardized tests
Physiological
changes

Feelings
Beliefs

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Scientific Method:
Quantitative Research
1. Identify problem
2. Formulate hypotheses
3. Collect data
4. Analyze data
5. Form conclusions
6. Share findings
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Sampling
Sample
A smaller group within the population
Studying the entire population is
inefficient

Random Selection
Each person in population has an equal
chance of being in sample
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Data Collection:
Self-Reports
Diaries
Recording daily activities

Interviews
Ask questions about attitudes, opinions, or
behavior
Can be open-ended or a questionnaire

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Data Collection:
Naturalistic Observation
People watching
Behavior is observed in natural
settings, without interfering
Limitations
Can not inform causes of behavior
Researcher cannot know all possible
influences on behavior
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Data Collection:
Laboratory Observation
Behavior observed and recorded in
controlled environment
More likely to identify and control causal
influences
Limitation:
Observer Bias: A researchers tendency to
interpret data to fit expectations
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Behavioral and
Performance Measures
Objective measures
Mechanical and electronic devices
Assessing skills, knowledge, and
abilities
Heart rate
Brain activity
Intelligence tests
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Meaningful Measures
Reliable
Results are consistent from time to time

Valid
The test actually measures what it claims
to measure

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Measures:
Operational Definitions
Defining abstract ideas in objective
terms
What is intelligence?
A score on a test

Are there different kinds of intelligence?

Emotional intelligence
Academic intelligence
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Social Cognitive
Neuroscience
Emerging field
Bridges mind, brain, and behavior

Uses data from:

Cognitive neuroscience
Social psychology
Info-processing approaches
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Research Designs
Type

Characteristics

Pros

Cons

Case Study

Study of individuals

Flexibility

Reduced
generalizability

Ethnographic

Study of cultures

Universality of
phenomena

Observer bias

Correlational

Positive or negative
relationships

Enables
prediction

Cannot
establish cause
and effect

Experiment

Controlled
procedures

Establishes
cause and
effect

Reduced
generalizability

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Case Studies
Study of an individual (such as Genie)
Offer useful in-depth information
Shortcomings
Not generalizable
No way to test conclusions

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Ethnographic studies
Describe patterns that make up a societys
way of life
Relationships, customs, beliefs, arts, traditions

Participant observation
Subject to observer bias

Useful in cross-cultural research

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Correlational Studies

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Experiments: Groups
Experimental
People who are exposed to the
treatment

Control
Similar to the experimental group but
do NOT receive the treatment
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Experiments: Variables
Independent
Experimenter has direct control over

Dependent
Something that may or may not
change as result of changes in
independent variable
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Experiments:
Random Assignment
Participants have an equal chance of
placement in experimental or control
group(s)
Helps avoid unintentional differences
between groups

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Experiments: Location
Control over cause and effect varies,
depending on location:
Laboratory most control
Field controlled
Everyday settings
Home or school

Natural least control

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Research Designs
Cross
sectional

People assessed at one point in time

Same people studied more than

Longitudinal once

Sequential

Complex combination of crosssectional and longitudinal

Adds more data than either design
alone
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Longitudinal and
Cross-Sectional Designs

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Sequential Designs

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Ethics
Balancing benefits or research against
mental and physical risks to participants
Considerations

Right to informed consent

Avoidance of deception
Right to privacy
Confidentiality
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Ethics
Researchers are guided by
Beneficence
Respect
Justice

Researchers should be sensitive to

participants developmental needs and
cultural issues and values
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